Official coronation portrait (Image credit: Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, 2015)
The Queen and the English language are both unique within their categories. The Queen enjoyed special social status among humans through a complex combination of exceptional legal standing, imperial power, accumulated wealth, and sophisticated celebrity cult. The same is true of English: it is different from any other language in terms of reach, clout, and popularity.
English has more speakers than any other language
English today is said to have around 1.5 billion speakers, close to 20% of the global population. Even if counting speaker numbers is notoriously tricky, that’s a lot more than any other language in history. If we were to include everyone with basic proficiency, 1.5 billion is a substantial undercount.
But it is not the large number of speakers that makes English exceptional. After all, Chinese is not far behind with 1.1 billion speakers.
What makes English categorically different from Chinese is the relationship between first and second language speakers. The overwhelming majority of Chinese speakers live in Greater China and speak Chinese as their mother tongue.
By contrast, only a minority of ca. 370 million English speakers live in the United Kingdom and its settler colonies (most notably the USA but also Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and South Africa).
The vast majority of English speakers live outside the Anglosphere: some in former exploitation colonies of the UK or USA (e.g., India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Bangladesh, Ghana), and others in countries with no special ties to the Anglosphere where English is learned as a foreign language (e.g., China, Germany, France, Japan, Russia).
In short, what makes English exceptional among languages is twofold: it is widely used outside the heartlands of the Anglosphere, and it is learned as an additional language by countless multitudes across the globe.
The most spoken languages worldwide, 2022 (Source: Statista)
English is more powerful than any other language
A language does not have power per se. It derives its power from the people and institutions it is associated with. And English has been associated with some of the most powerful people and institutions of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries.
The British Empire was the largest empire in human history, covering 35.5 million km2 in 1920 (when it was at its largest), or more than a quarter of the world’s land mass. Even after the decline of the British Empire, English got a second imperial boost due to US global domination.
English is not only associated with powerful states but almost all international organizations have English as their working language (sometimes along with a few other languages), from Amnesty International to the World Trade Organization. Even organizations far removed from the Anglosphere have adopted an English Only policy, such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
The political might of English is accompanied by economic clout. Most of the world’s most powerful corporations are headquartered in the USA, and even those that are not have been adopting English as their corporate language.
The world’s richest people speak English, too: 8 of the world’s 10 richest people are based in the USA, and the other two (one in France, one in India) undoubtedly also have English in their repertoires.
The examples could go on and on to illustrate that English is spoken in most of the world’s halls of power. That creates an effect that sociologists call “misrecognition”. Power comes from control over military, economic, or political resources; not from language. However, because English is so consistently associated with high power, it becomes “misrecognized” as a source of power.
And because everyone wants a piece of the cake, everyone wants to learn English so that they, too, can reap the successes it seems to confer.
Countries with largest numbers of English speakers
English is more hegemonic than any other language
Misrecognition is closely tied to another exceptional characteristic of English: it dominates through the ideas associated with it. English is stereotypically associated with the best in almost any field of human endeavor.
Most languages are associated with cultural stereotypes, beliefs, ideas, and emotions. Unlike the specific and relatively narrow cultural stereotypes associated with other languages (e.g., “French sounds romantic”), ideas about English are highly versatile: it is the language of modernity itself.
English is seen as the language of Hollywood media glitz and glamour, the language of freedom and liberal democracy, or the language of science and technology. Indeed, the cultural versatility of English is so great that it not only serves as the language of global capitalism but can also appear as its antagonist: the language of resistance.
One important way in which the hegemony of English is maintained is through the pomp and pageantry of the British monarchy. We are currently seeing global media saturation coverage. Its effect is not only to create a cultural, emotional, aspirational, and personally-felt connection with the Queen but with everything she stands for, including the English language.
The future of English
Although the role of the Queen is highly exceptional, her passing reminds us that the role was filled by an ordinary human being. It is likely that the next incumbent will be less capable at arresting the decline of the British monarchy. The role is likely to become less special, with a reduced realm and against the continuing diversification of celebrity cults.
The passing of the Queen has unleashed a global media frenzy, which also reinforces the hegemony of English (Image credit: sohu.com)
It might take longer for English to see a diminished status. In the past, imperial languages such as Latin and Persian survived the empires that spread them by hundreds, if not thousands, of years.
At the same time, the fate of English now rests to a significant degree with the language policies of countries outside the Anglosphere. And these might change as beliefs about the importance of the language change. For instance, if China were to curtail the role of English language proficiency for university entrance, this could send speaker numbers plummeting quite quickly.
The role of English is no longer solely in the hands of the Anglosphere.
Related content
To explore further how English went from peripheral peasant tongue to global superspreader language, and what its meteoric rise means, head over to this guest lecture I delivered at Yunnan University, Kunming, China) on Sept 28, 2021.
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English is an overwhelming first language as a global language. Especially in Korea, I think this phenomenon is more prominent than any other Asian country. We learn Korean as soon as we are born, but when we begin to communicate to some extent, most parents hire tutors to teach English or send them to academies. In addition, English subjects are required subjects from elementary school, middle school, high school, and even university, and if you do not get grades in English subjects, you cannot enter prestigious universities and are restricted from employment. Good English scores are essential to get a good job in Korea. However, it is regrettable that there are many students who have difficulty speaking in English even after graduating from all curriculums because the process of learning languages is not so practical in Korea’s educational system. There is a lot of controversy about English education every time, but English seems to be an essential language both in Korea and around the world.
Thanks, Hana! Why do you think that is? That English fever is at a higher pitch in S Korea than anywhere else?
Do you think perhaps that over the centuries decisions were deliberately taken to ensure a level of complexity in the language’s structure and in its upper class accent(s) so that the hoi polloi and the Proles know their place and stay there – except for a few gifted linguists at Her Majesty’s dining table, who by virtue of their rare talent attend, for example, Ingrid’s academy???
Interesting question, Paul! Not sure about deliberate decisions but, undoubtedly, language is a form of symbolic capital and can index distinction (pace Bourdieu)
Bourdieu, Pierre. (1991). Language and symbolic power (Gino Raymond & Matthew Adamson, Trans.). Cambridge: Polity.
Thank you for sharing this interesting article, i totally agree that English has been the common language globally and it is used everywhere and in all countries. For Instance, in my country Algeria, we used to focus more on french and Arabic as it is the main used languages that Algerians use and communicate with because of the French colonisation. However, nowadays they focusing more in English more than French as the worldwide common Language is English and most developed countries are demanding this language, even European countries need people who speak English to develop their businesses .Therefore, i think English is a very powerful language because of the international business and trade that’s why it is the common language for the world.
Thanks, Koki! I think English is on the way to becoming similar to the ability to read and write – a must to progressing through the education system; as more and more people learn English, distinction will come from something else – maybe from trilingualism in Arabic and French?
In almost country in the world, English is considered a mandatory subject from primary to high school, and Viet Nam is no exception. The English language has a dominant position in Vietnam compared to other languages. The clear evidence is that several parents send their children to English centres when they are at a very young age.
Recently, the rate of students who study IELTS when they are in grade nine or ten is increasing massively due to the policies of universities. Students who got the IELTS certificate with high scores can get into high-ranking universities easier than others. Instead of studying hard for many subjects such as maths, literature, science and so on, they only need to concentrate on English and are not under the pressure of university entrance exams. The role of English also can be seen when applying for a job. In international firms in Viet Nam, apart from IQ and EQ tests, they also have an English test for applicants to make sure they can meet their requirements. Realising the critical position of English in my country is one of the stimulations for me to study TESOL in Australia. There are a lot of career opportunities for English teachers with high wages and some can even gain a high social status.
THanks, Clara! Maybe you can become a superstar English language teacher like Ruby Hsu in Taiwan? 😉https://www.languageonthemove.com/english-teaching-superstars/ Good luck!
English is definitely a symbol for social status in India. It is a collective belief that if someone speaks English, then they should be extremely smart and intelligent, even though language has nothing to do with someone’s intelligence exactly. But, the main reason English speakers in India are treated with respect, is because the Britishers used to rule India for years and they portrayed themselves as royal people and they treated Indians as stupid creatures with no royal characteristics. And even after Independence, the effect of the Britishers is still there. Another main reason that English is treated with so much respect is the demand of English proficiency in today’s world. English is a compulsory subject in the Indian education system and that’s why the students are competing with each other about learning this language. Majority of the Indians are not proficient in English and that’s why English becomes a symbol of power when only a few people speak English and these “few” people turn out to be people with power like leaders, scholars, celebrities, professionals, etc. The facial expressions of non-English speakers when they look at someone speaking English fluently explains the amount of power that this language holds in people’s opinions.
Thanks, Tushar! The association between speaking a particular language (or speaking it in a particular way) with intelligence or, conversely, stupidity, is one of the most harmful language ideologies. It inculcates self-hate and a sense of shame in subjected people. That’s why I think teaching about language ideologies is important …
In the past, I mean until 2000 from my knowledge English proficiency became competent for getting a job. Therefore, every parent began teaching English earliest from kindergarten entering their children English kindergarten, and that passion resulted that English wasn’t beneficial any more but necessary in Korean society. Many young
people can speak English. However, peculiar one is Korean society especially large enterprises require English ability above on average. It means that more competent
worker in English can have more opportunity at their companies. They can have diverse chance to choose a division getting higher salary at companies. This phenomenon is very similar with the past due to average level became higher.
Thanks, SunKyung! English is under inflationary pressure, no doubt … a level of English that was considered just fine even only a few years ago is no longer enough …
It is undeniable that English plays an essential role in the world today. The IELTS test is one of the powerful tools that presents English proficiency. At my Vietnam university, English is the medium of instruction, and all students from different majors must pass the English foundation class to start learning specialized knowledge (if they don’t pass, they will have to retake the course). Then, they have to submit an IELTS certificate with at least a 6.5 band score to be able to graduate from the university. For this reason, many students are willing to pay a fortune to study at IELTS centers in a short time to achieve their goals.
Not only adults but also children and teenagers are chasing after the high band score IELTS certificate. I talked to a parent of a 10-year-old student 3 months ago and she wanted her child to study the IELTS course. I was shocked because even though I know that IELTS nowadays is considered to be the key to a brighter future and better job, I didn’t expect a 10-year-old student to immerse in IELTS when she hasn’t had fully cognitive growth. Personally, I don’t even know whether the child is interested in the English language itself or because she is forced to study by her parents. Have the dominance of the English language restricted people in their choice of learning a language?
Thanks, Bubbletea! I also feel that there is such a thing as “too much of a good thing” and an excessive focus on English language learning too early can actually harm a child’s development – it’s similar to the submersion education experienced by minority children in some contexts …
English is used as a gate keeper to migration to many English speaking nations. This is not saying that English is superior but that in order to enter a desired nation, mechanisms are put in place to control the number of entrants. People desire to come to Australia because it is clean, safe, and there are many job opportunities compared to back in their home country. Just ask my Brazilian Uber driver who says Brazil is dangerous and there are no jobs. In order to thrive in this country, where English is the main language, it is desirable to learn the language well, not just to get the message across. When I was growing up, I used to hear my mum making comments about the uneducated Vietnamese. Even though a person is born in Vietnam and is fluent in Vietnamese, speaking and writing well is still contingent on going to school. Prior to communism in Vietnam, only educated Vietnamese men can rise to higher ranks in the South Vietnamese army. This shows linguistic power existed for anyone who could use the Vietnamese language adeptly. This would be no different to English. The richest people are not rich because they speak English. It just happens that English speaking nations provide more opportunities to succeed . And many higher paying jobs in Australia require qualifications that demand a near excellent command of English. This means the job may not require a high skill of English but without English, studying for a certificate is a significant hurdle and relegate the person to low skilled and under paid employment positions that do not demand any qualifications.
Thanks, Thao! Couldn’t have said it better myself 😉
English is considered a lingua franca. There is an incremental number of people learning English in this day and age. In my country, Vietnam, people who either know English or have competent English skills are prioritized in the labor market. Candidates that possess an English certificate such as TOEIC or IETLS are more powerful than the others. Those who do not have an English certificate are required to obtain one. Additionally, if you wish to obtain direct admission to numerous Vietnamese universities, you should carry an IELTS certificate (normally 6.0-7.0 IELTS for top-tier universities). Similarly important, if you want to graduate from universities in Vietnam, it is essential to meet English requirements by partaking in English exams of the university such as VSTEP; otherwise, a 7.0-7.5 IELTS is required, and even TOEIC or TOFLETo is not accepted in some universities. It’s really interesting to know that some students cannot graduate because they do not demonstrate qualified English proficiency although their major is not related to English. It can be easily inferred that IELTS in Vietnam is bound to be a powerful tool.
Nevertheless, there are some cases in which English is not that influential. I used to apply for a part-time job in several supermarkets and café shops in Eastwood and Chatswood but was rejected because I only speak fluent English and my mother tongue, Vietnamese, and don’t know Chinese. Isn’t it weird?
Sorry to hear you missed out on jobs in Eastwood and Chatswood! But it’s the perfect illustration that linguistic markets operate at different levels and they are not the same everywhere …
Thank you for a very informative article. I was always curious about the reason for the power of English, and now I’ve had the answer. About 70 years ago, not many people in Vietnam chose to learn English. The reason is that the Soviet Union was one of the first to establish diplomatic relations with Vietnam, creating a solid bone between the two countries. Consequently, most Vietnamese students decided to learn Russian so they could go abroad to Russia.
However, just a few years later, English took over Russian as the most chosen study language for students. People who learned Russian in the past struggled to find a related job besides language teacher. They had to either switch majors or learn English to get a suitable job. I can reckon that the power of English has totally changed the circumstance in Vietnam. Nowadays, English has become a compulsory subject in almost all schools in Vietnam. Universities even use the IELTS test result as one of the assessment methods for entrance. I believe that English will become increasingly popular among Vietnamese since Vietnam is willing to integrate into the world.
Thanks, Emma! The replacement of Russian with English as a foreign language after the end of the Cold War has been one of the biggest linguistic transformations of the past decades. In fact, my first university teaching job involved teaching English to former Russian teachers who needed to retrain because the demand for Russian had collapsed … You can read about it here.
Thank you for your article. As you mentioned in the article, I think the power of English in Korea is also due to the government and institutions’ policies relating to English.
English is the main subject of Korean middle and high school, along with Korean, math, and science. The more critical subjects, the more classes students have per week. Korean middle and high school students have 3 to 4 English classes weekly, whereas they have 2 to 3 hours of science.
So students must be good at English to get good grades to go to college.
Even after graduating from college, English influences Koreans greatly. To become a government official, including firefighters, they need to get good English grades again. Fluent English is essential if they want a decent job in a good company. That is not the end. To get promoted, they need to get good English grades again.
Although most Koreans don’t need to speak English, many have stress about taking English tests.
Thanks, Logan! That firefighters need English is heart-breaking. Ultimately, the inflation of educational credentials is a cover-up for the fact that there are not enough jobs to go around … I remember seeing a satirical Iranian video a few years ago about the selection process for street cleaners: to be eligible for that job, applicants needed to be able to explain Einstein’s theory of relativity to the recruiter 😢
English in Vietnam plays a dominant role in many aspects both in the everyday and professional lives of people. This widely held belief has caused parents of families in all classes to send their children to language centres or tutor classes to learn English. Language classes are mushrooming relatively everywhere. Sadly, there have been many cases in which English centres disappeared with the tuition fees of hundreds of English learners. Despite the risks of fraud, parents blindly devote a substantial share of their income and savings to ensure their children’s English competence improves, hoping that they could have better employability later in life.
Many Vietnamese students may study other languages such as French, German or Japanese because of their scholarship schemes, student foreign exchange and immigration opportunities, but they are way less popular than English. The increased importance of English proficiency certificates, especially IELTS for university entry and graduation in recent years has affirmed the language’s pivotal position. As far as I am concerned, there are some valid reasons that justify this increasing trend. Preparing for the test is not limited to solidifying students’ language skills but also getting them familiar with technical and academic terms and writings that they are most likely to encounter later in university or at work. More importantly, they are trained to engage deeply and critically with a variety of topics that contributes to changing their deeply rooted ‘culture of learning’. This is because Vietnamese learners have always been characterized as passive, mechanical, as well as lacking confidence, communicative skills and critical thinking. Consistent exposure to skill practices could positively address their learning methods and eventually results in educational attainments. This could not be done more effectively by any language other than English.
Thanks, Quynh! I’m really intrigued by your comment that the study of English is not only about learning the language but about changing learning styles … why could this not be done through Vietnamese (or any other language)?
There are some reasons explaining why learning English and preparing for English proficiency tests contribute to bettering the learning practice of Vietnamese students.
Given that Vietnamese pedagogy is designed with massive influence from the Confucian heritage culture, students have always been taught to be obedient and respectful to teachers. They, therefore tend to avoid raising voices and asking questions in class, instead passively listening to what teachers say, memorizing information and reproducing in the tests. Moreover, considering the problems of large class sizes and the teacher’s responsibilities related to teaching, designing curriculum and others, teaching subjects in Vietnamese in an authoritative way might be more suitable in the face of local barriers.
Meanwhile, when partaking in the class preparing for the language proficiency test (IELTS for example), students will receive more individual support from their teacher. Students are often instructed to be critically interactive with the materials they learn. For example, in improving skills in the Speaking test, students often practice by asking themselves questions on various topics and then coming up with appropriate responses. This contributes to the formation of their analytical skills. In terms of Writing skills, instead of employing memorizing techniques without full comprehension to write essays, students are encouraged to be sceptical and critical when finding ways to support or oppose a claim in a writing task. To this end, they need to build base knowledge about various topics. With English being the most widely spoken language in the world, finding resources about diverse topics in this language is certainly straightforward and fairly effortless.
Born and raising in Australia, I had fluent English. I decided to apply to teach at a a normal public system school who have English classes. When I applied to do English teaching in Turkiye, they wanted someone who can write and teach the American English only as that is what they learn in that country. I can see that English is still a must, but i never knew that it was a must to learn the American English. In addition, it shows how much the country rather follow the Americanized things such as music, culture and the language. Students in Turkiye found it normal to learn the American slang and follow the way the English Americans practice things such as Halloween etc.
Thanks, Sinem! I am always surprised how insistent some countries are on teaching American English (or British English) – after all the varieties are not that different … another pervasive language ideology in global English.
You might enjoy this article about Taiwan’s love affair with American English
Actually, I have never thought about the connection between the Queen (may she rest in piece), and English language. I find it interesting how the passing of the Queen can affect the English language and its meaning, as for me, English has always presented a possibility of communicate with multiple people from different countries, even if English was not their or mine first language. Whether it was my host mother in England, my Australian client in a barbershop, or my Finnish student’s Canadian mother in primary school, I always appreciate the skill of speaking English in a level in where you can communicate with others and learn more from them in any subject. In my opinion, it would be strange and even impossible to think any other future for English language.
True but I’m also wondering whether you are not overrating English a bit? For example, I recently read an article about communication problems on the train between St. Petersburg and Helsinki – and English seemed to play hardly any useful role at all there …
Probirskaja, Svetlana. (2017). “Does anybody here speak Finnish?” Linguistic first aid and emerging translational spaces on the Finnish-Russian Allegro train. Translation Studies, 10(3), 231-246. doi:10.1080/14781700.2017.1289861
Thank you for this interesting article. I agree with you on this point that English is more hegemonic than any other language. English as an international common language is arguably a ubiquitous presence in any country. I don’t think any other language has reached the same status as English. Although Chinese is second only to English, the difference is that most Chinese speakers are restricted to mainland China. English, on the other hand, is different in that it is far more widespread than Chinese. Although many countries now allow students to choose their own second language, such as Japan, at the university I went to, about 70 per cent of the students chose English, although they were free to do so.
There is also the issue of the decline in the status of English over time, as you are concerned about. I think that if China were to eliminate English exams for university entrance, it would certainly reduce the use of English a lot, but that doesn’t mean that the standing of English would be shaken. After all, every country has a high level of recognition for English compared to other languages. Just as the vast majority of students now choose to study in English-speaking countries. When looking for a job, speaking English is a big plus compared to any other language. All these little details are how English is recognised internationally. I don’t think this will be easily shaken or changed.
Thanks, Chloe! I agree with you – so many different language policy decisions by nation states, institutions, and individuals all conspire to make the #1 place of English quite secure (for now 😉
Thanks for your interesting article!
I love the idea which is English has no power, but it is powerful because it associated with the “powerful” institutions. In Vietnam, English is a foreign language and it associated with many large companies which can be Vietnamese companies or international companies. I have heard from my friend who is working in a big tourism company that if we can speak English and have an English certificate (B1 or higher), we automatically have higher salary than others who have no English skills. Another example is from one director of a livestock company. He appreciates one staff, and that staff became the director’s assistance not because he is a skilled staff in farming techniques or possesses special skills, just because he is good at English, and he can help the director to communicate with international partners. Although English is not the second language the language which is used mainly in society, but it still has power because of its association with the powerful institutions or powerful people.
Thanks, Brownie, for these interesting examples. Some scholars have argued that English creates a kind of shadow management structure in international companies, where English speakers may become influential because they control communication, even if they have not superior technical skills or even formal managerial role – just like in your example.
I wrote about this in the “Intercultural communication at work” chapter in my book Intercultural Communication. You might want to find it on Multisearch.
Thank you, Ingrid, this reminds me of the research article about the portrayal of Chinese international students by reviewed contemporary literatures. The article analysed how Chinese international students are depicted as neoliberal, political, pedagogic and racialized subjects, and challenged superior position projected by many global neoliberal universities that contributed to the inequality and hierarchy in knowledge production system against the ‘Orient Others’. In particular, the review reveals the shifts in Chinese international students’ perceptions toward the role of English and English-centred Higher Education.
In the past decades, high-ranking western Universities, through the lens of Orientalism projected by western scholars, has been represented as valuable and superior epistemic entities than their orient counterparts, thus English, the language of western education is represented as a symbol of neoliberalism and modernisation. This perception seemed to be internalised by Chinese international students in the past, and a small number today who may still view themselves as pedagogically deficit, lacking critical skills, and seek to be ‘fixed’ in the global neoliberal universities predominated by ‘modernised’ western ideologies. However, the study has shown that nascent body of research started to shift the focus to Chinese international students who possess critical thinking skills, academic strategies and capabilities to produce epistemic knowledge as valuable as western scholars using English as a tool.
Therefore, English, from the position of Chinese international students, may no longer be perceived as a medium for changing a deficit mindset and adapting the western ways of thinking, but a powerful tool to realise personal values in the wider world.
Here is the link to the academic article in case you are interested 😊 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12564-021-09731-8#Tab2
Thanks, Rebma, for the reference! Looking forward to reading it although I would add that the hegemony of English today could not be maintained if it did not also emanate from outside the English-speaking world, including China …
In China, the ability to speak English is almost a must for promotions and raises, and it may even lead to opportunities beyond your expectations. In fact, no one who is at the top of any field is bad at English. The importance of learning English in China may not only lie in communicating with foreigners, getting good grades on exams, or developing overseas. What’s more, no matter what industry you are in and what kind of life experience you want, you can enjoy the wisdom and experience of the world smoothly.
In China, the primary purpose for minors to receive education is to deal with the college entrance examination. The college entrance examination is the ultimate baton of course setting, study direction and resource matching. Since the resumption of the gaokao in 1977, the position of English in the gaokao and the whole education system has been continuously strengthened.
In 1983, English was officially included in the college entrance examination subject;
In September 1987, the first College English Test Band 4 was implemented;
In January 1989, there was the College English Test Band 6;
In 1992, English was suddenly upgraded from a required subject to one of the three major subjects in the college entrance examination due to the reform of the subject system.
This has greatly stimulated the Chinese society to attach importance to English teaching. The amount of time that Chinese students devote to learning English by the end of college is probably the highest of any non-English speaking country in the world. But in today’s globalized economy and culture, English, as a skill rather than a subject, will only become more and more important with time and national development.
Thanks, YJ! But isn’t it also the case that the role of English in the Gaokao is being wound back since the 2016 reform?
The fate of English and the evolution of technology are intriguing for language professionals’ life prospects. The future looks bright or dreary, depending on one’s perspective. However, the evolution of research in English Language Teaching is undoubtedly a milestone to be proud of.
During my undergraduate studies in Colombia, more than ten years ago, I remember being questioned when citing local authors or students faithfully adhering to trendy anglosphere topics. This year I was lucky enough to reconnect with my mother ship through “Semillero Enseñanza y Aprendizaje de Lenguas Extranjeras, Cultura y Justicia Social” (Research Incubator: Foreign Languages Teaching and Learning Culture and Social Justice) from the District University of Bogotá. This scenario has become a voice for historically diminished communities, a home for valuable contributions from students, alumni, and teaching staff via workshops, talks, and research projects.
For instance, the following research article by Professor Kyria Finardi from Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (Brazil) and Professor Sandra Ximena Bonilla Medina from Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas (Bogotá, Colombia) portrays another facet of English cultural versatility. I kindly invite you to have a look.
https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/ikala/article/view/349004
Thanks, Jhonny, for the reference! I’m a big fan of Íkala – great journal 🙂
The Chinese community has been developing more and more, and their language and culture affect Korea. A lot of Chinese lessons and Chinese language platforms in the media have come up in Korea. However, English is still dominated as a first-rank second language. It is a compulsory subject from primary to high school in the public education system. In addition, ‘Suneung’, the biggest scholastic ability exam for applying to high ranked universities, also has an English test as a compulsory subject apart from the optional second language test. Even sending children to English kindergarten is considered a symbol of having a high quality of education among young parents in Korea, even though it is expensive as informal education. Furthermore, certificates of English, such as TESOL, TOEIC, or IELTS, are a tool for getting many job opportunities and high-wage jobs. For these reasons, despite China’s influence, English remains a leading language for having many opportunities in Korea.
Thanks, Haein! The intensity of English fever in S Korea has always been fascinating to me. It seems like it’s so much more intense than anywhere else in the world … have you seen this paper which i co-authored with Dr Jinhyun Cho some time ago: https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/B004843736D4B07EDC694E97836CAF97/S0047404512000887a.pdf/neoliberalism_as_language_policy.pdf? Our research there was motivated by media reports about suicides which were blamed on English language learning requirements 😥
Thank you for this post, Ingrid. The part that resonated most with me from this post was the quote “because English is so consistently associated with high power, it becomes “misrecognized” as a source of power”. During the final year of my Bachelor’s degree, I joined a research project (for my PACE unit) that focused on the culture within academia, and what I learned from the experience was pretty similar to this quote.
In the PACE project, my main task was to collect articles that focused on the publishing experience of academics. For many of them, publishing is a way to advance in their careers, especially in distinguished international journals, as these journals have the potential to reach a larger audience. However, the majority of these journals come from the ‘core’ academic region. Similar to Kachru and de Swaan’s model of the language regions, the academic regions refers to the distinction between core and periphery regions. The core region consists of Anglophone countries, while the periphery region are mostly non-Anglophone. One of the distinctions between academics from these regions is the availability of funding and resources, with scholars from the core regions having more access and support to publish in international journals (of course, I’m not saying that academics from the core regions do not face challenges in the publishing process; from what I’ve seen and read, academia culture can be rough). Due to this difference in funding and support, most of the articles in international journals are written in English, and come from certain countries within the core academic regions.
While using a common language in academic publishing brings many benefits (mutual intelligibility, standardized article structure / language, etc.), the linguistic representation in academic journals have created some challenges for multilingual scholars, especially those whose first language is not English. Because scholars from the core regions are more represented in international journals, they have in turn created a publishing ‘guideline’, with certain rules and convention that other scholars should follow, in order to publish. While many multilingual scholars are proficient in academic writing, specific standards can be challenging for them to follow. Cultural differences often lead to difference in writing styles, with non-anglophone authors tend to have different structures and expressions in their articles, which affect how their works are judged in the peer-review process. And this is where having a lingua franca in the academic world becomes a problem.
A lot of the articles we collected mentioned the uneven participation of scholars from periphery regions, as they either lack the resource to publish their works, or their findings simply did not pass the peer-review process. While having a strict peer-review process ensures the quality of the articles published in international journals, we can’t help but wonder how many good and legitimate studies have been ignored due to some criteria imposed by the exacting standards of these journals. And this is why your quote reminds me of my PACE project. English is prominent in international journals, so we associate the language with legitimacy in research. However, a study is not solely valued for its language use, but for many other standards. And how many studies and scholars have been ignored due to that misrecognition?
Monteiro, K., & Hirano, E. (2020). A periphery inside a semi-periphery: The uneven participation of Brazilian scholars in the international community. English for specific purposes, 58, 15-29. doi:10.1016/j.esp.2019.11.001
Raitskaya, L., & Tikhonova, E. (2020). Overcoming cultural barriers to scholarly communication in international peer-reviewed journals. Journal of lanugage and education, 6(2), 4-8. https://doi.org/10.17323/JLE.2020.11043
Uzuner, S. (2008). Multilingual scholars’ participation in core/global academic communities: A literature review. Journal of English for academic purposes, 7(4), 250-263. doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2008.10.007
Thanks, Bob, for the detailed analysis and the references! As a journal editor, I’ve got a deep interest in and commitment to challenging the linguistic and epistemic inequalities stemming from the dominance of English in global knowledge production. Together with two colleagues from China, I recently published an article about our experiences, which you might like to add to your collection. You can access it via https://www.languageonthemove.com/how-to-challenge-anglocentricity-in-academic-publishing/
Very interesting article to read, thanks for sharing. I learn something new every time i read your articles. The role of English is very important worldwide. I can’t think of a country that don’t use English either taught at schools or used at work. English became an essential skill for people worldwide. In Lebanon it’s compulsory now to learn both English, Arabic and French at schools. Our new generation is highly bilingual in all it means and that’s a big plus for our children who are able to speak 3 languages. English speakers get better opportunities at work and in life in general. They can be offered higher positions, in different sectors and can apply for jobs overseas. Especially now that we have bad economic crisis and people are suffering and loosing their jobs so those people are applying for jobs in the Gulf and especially in UAE and getting accepted for their education and bilingual skills, specifically English speakers because as known the UAE has workers from different nationalities who only communicate in English and all business done internationally in English.
Thanks, Lily – glad you enjoy the readings 🙏
Don’t you think it’s the combination of English and Arabic that makes Lebanese attractive workers in UAE; rather than English only?
I like how you pointed out that the role of the following King has become less special since her majesty passed away. The power of British monarchy is linked to the widespread of English language as a result of the British colonies. It is unlikely that English will stay the language of modernism, science and technology. I can relate this to the golden age of Islam when Arabic was the language of science a thousand years ago. Personally, I think English language will keep spreading since those countries of the “outside” circle will keep using it. I am Saudi and it is funny to me when I realize that I can communicate with my Lebanese friends in English way better than Arabic though we speak the same language.
Thanks, Abed! There is no doubt that English is useful in global communication – funny that English works better for you than Arabic 😉
And history is a great teacher: like other languages before, the rise of English will be followed by its fall …
I wonder what will happen to the massive trove of media, prints and publications in English.
Can you elaborate on that question?
Thanks for the article. English, indeed, is a powerful tool in many aspects.
To share my experience as an English teacher in Korea, there is no exaggeration to say that parents’ wealth determines the level of their kid’s English capability. Most parents NEVER hesitate to spend hundreds up to thousands of dollars per month for their kids to receive good English education. They firmly believe that it leads to having a good job in the future. (which, in part, I agree.) It has become a distinctive indicator of future success in Korea. It is a bit sad to see that the economic status of parents passes on to their children.
Furthermore, as it says in the article, it also represents “coolness” and “trendy” in modern culture. Many artists leading the Korean pop industry write their songs in English. It contributes to reinforcing the idea that communicating in English is something cool or cultural among young generations.
Thanks, Mandu! The figures you cite are shocking. Wherever private education becomes so important (whether it’s English or any other subject), meritocracy becomes a mere illusion …
What an interesting aspect! I have never thought that someone would spend that much money for their children’s education in English, just because it’s thought to be so much better. But is it? I have never appreciated my country’s free English education more than now when I learnt that it is very wanted in some countries. I think it would be beneficial for everyone to get the possibility of English education, not to mention the equality. I find it very interesting and will definitely search more about this. Thank you for this, Mandy.
Thanks, Em! High-quality free public education is a human right!
When I studied abroad in Spain, I took 4 engineering classes at the Polytechnic University of Madrid. Two of these classes were instructed in Spanish, and two were instructed in English. This was done despite the fact that both the faculty and the students came overwhelmingly from Spain. At the time, I found it strange that the coursework was not being completely delivered in the local language, seemingly almost to my exclusive benefit.
Now, I understand that this use of English was an acknowledgment of the language’s international prestige, as well as a bid at external recognition: that the university itself would be seen as more prestigious by association. This symbolic power of English is pervasive across other academic domains such as scholarly journals, many of which are published in English in order to maximize international readership (itself a measure of prestige).
Thanks, 烏 (からす)! It really is strange when the main purpose of the language of instruction is symbolic (to garner prestige) rather than practical (to learn content). When will we see that the emperor has no clothes? 😉
English is unquestionably a special language. The fact that it was just an insignificant language and levelled up to be on the top of the language pyramid is exceptional. Speaking English skill is often linked to a better opportunity in the job market. In Indonesia, top ten universities require their future students for any master program to have at least 450-500 TOEFL ITP score which is equal to 5.5-6.0 for IELTS even though these universities use Indonesian as their language of instruction. English is the only foreign language included in the national exam. Now Indonesia has around 400 international schools that use English as the language of instruction, and where the foreign passport holder/native English teachers, mostly speak only English, gets paid much a way higher than the Indonesian teachers with exact the same number of responsibilities. Being English native speakers are indeed a privilege.
Thanks, Ziadah! Just read that in Vietnam all university graduates need to demonstrate English proficiency; didn’t know it was the same in Indonesia. What’s the rationale for that? Engineers or medical doctors, for instance, don’t really need English, one would imagine?
The emphasis on using English for international communication seems not always beneficial in interpreting practice.
Few years ago, I was the interpreter in a ministry-level seminar involving delegates from Japan and Vietnam. There were presentations delivered in English by Japanese officials about space technology – probably not an easy topic to discuss in a foreign language. Of course, they could get by with prepared scripts and slides, which helped me interpret smoothly as well. It was only until the Q&A session that communication problems arose, when Vietnamese listeners tried to ask questions in English (making me feel slightly disregarded), while Japanese presenters struggled to explain properly in the language (which also caused me difficulty). Neither party was proficient enough in English to handle discussion in such a technical field despite their expertise. Would the interpreter be to blame?
After the seminar, one Japanese delegate approached and thanked me for the service. I was curious to ask him why the presentation wasn’t conducted in his first language, and he replied that the ministry required all officials to use English throughout. I wonder whether English must always be used in these situations. Would it have worked better if hiring a Japanese-Vietnamese interpreter instead?
Thanks, Justin, for sharing your experience! The belief in English as a panacea can really lead to poor communication strategies, as you describe. Q&A is so tricky for interpreters, particularly when you get people who think their English is good enough to handle the communication but really isn’t … do you intervene to save the communication or not intervene to save the speaker’s face?
At that time I was sitting in a cabin doing simultaneous interpreting, so there was little intervention I could do other than trying to translate to the best of my ability. The speakers did try to do their best, but their unprepared speech in a heavy accent made my task so challenging that I couldn’t afford to risk it. A solution could be having a backup Japanese interpreter, but considering the less popular foreign language and the specialised subject matter, it could be difficult to find a competent one.
One of the many under-appreciated challenges of interpreting …
Interesting insight is that the future of English will be influenced by what countries outside of the Anglosphere will do. I remember as a young kid in Korea, it was a given that English is a crucial language to learn and should be learned, needless to say it is still the same now. English is the official language for regional organizations, such as ASEAN that Professor Ingrid has mentioned, as well as OPEC and SAARC. As the world is becoming more connected and can be reached immediately, English is likely to remain as the hypercentral language. Another example is that even for teachers who teach Korean language are speaking to students in English, not only in English-speaking countries but also in Europe, Asia, Africa, and so on. Many K-pop stars communicate with their global fans in English and their songs are written partly in English. English is the main source of communication in all kinds of fields and communities, will it be possible to change to another central language?
Thanks, Chocomilk! Funny that you mention K-pop – it’s apparently one of the key reasons why Korean has become such a popular language to study in the past couple of years. A few years ago, the university where I worked then polled students on which language they wanted to study. Most selected Korean 🤩 https://www.languageonthemove.com/korean-beats-french/
Dear Ingrid, thank you so much for your feedback and the link to your article from 2009! I am so surprised that even back in 2009, Korean was voted to be one of the most popular language to learn; I did hear that K-dramas and K-pop is popular in the Middle East, but I didn’t know it was to this extent!
Thank you for sharing an amazing article! I am really interested in the similarity between the Queen and the English language you have shown in this article.
In my home country – Vietnam, English is a compulsory subject in our education system from primary school to high school. Even in the entrance examination for university, besides Maths and Literature, English is also included and students have to get at least a required mark to graduate from high school. In tertiary education, English is also taught as a mandatory subject to support students’ future career paths. To be specific, students will be taught vocabulary, sample conversations and useful expressions related to their major. Recently, in the majority of prestigious universities in Vietnam, IELTS certificate is a requirement for students to graduate. For non-major English students, they have to achieve IELTS certificate with 5.5 – 6.0 overall band with no band less than 5.0, whereas, for major English students, IELTS certificate with 6.5 – 7.0 overall band with no band less than 6.0 is a must. When applying for a job, applicants are often required to submit their bachelor’s degree and English certificate. During the integration period, more foreign languages are added to the education system in Vietnam such as: Chinese, Japanese, Korean and French but they are still optional subjects at school. The Chinese community is more and more developing in the southern region of Vietnam. Besides, more Chinese investors come to Vietnam to build companies and factories. As a result, nowadays, the number of Vietnamese people who learn Chinese has increased. In some big cities in Vietnam such as Ho Chi Minh city, being fluent in Mandarin or Cantonese is also one of the job requirements in most big companies. From my point of view, despite the development of learning other languages, English is still a foreign language most widely used in Vietnam. I think in Vietnam, it is hard for Chinese to replace English but it may become a second important foreign language in future.
Thanks, Dung! I can’t believe that every university graduate needs an English proficiency certificate, regardless of major. What is the justification that, e.g., engineers or medical doctors need English?
Since 2012, English proficiency certificate has been required for every university graduate regardless of major. I think the main reason is the education reform of Ministry of Education & Training (MOET). Besides, from my point of view, universities want their students to achieve the standards that recruiters are seeking. One of my friends is studying to become a medical doctor. She is absolutely a non-major English student; however, to graduate from her university, she has to get an IELTS certificate with 6.0 overall and no band less than 5.0. For major English students like me, in addition to an IELTS certificate with 7.0 overall with no band less than 6.5, we are also required to get another foreign language proficiency certificate. I studied Japanese to get N4 certificate and submit it with my IELTS certificate to graduate from my university. I quite struggled during my university days when having to study English and Japanese at the same time.
Thanks, Dung! I really feel for the medical students having to also study English. Seems rather pointless; or maybe Vietnam is setting itself up as another labor export country, like the Philippines?
Having said that, I agree with English majors having to do a second foreign language. Makes sense to me – maybe because I faced the same requirement as an undergraduate student? 😉 (did French and Spanish)
While spending time in larger groups with people from different linguistic or cultural backgrounds, English is usually the language used. The reason is pretty simple: we assume that everyone is at some level familiar with English. But an interesting note I have made is that if in the group is someone who is not as fluent in English as others, the person can easily be perceived as less smart. Again, in this case, the simple reason behind is probably because the person cannot produce as complex sentences during conversations, takes more time to comprehend the things discussed, or just uses more general and simpler words than other participants.
However, what is left unseen here, is that this person is actually already “proving” a certain level of intelligence and, more importantly, a willingness to interact with others by speaking another language. So only the fact that they don’t master the language level yet exposes them to look less intelligent. Whereas a person, who speaks English but no other languages, cannot get such label in a similar setting for similar reasons.
So true, Milla! Speaking in an additional language often affects the speaker’s credibility (and confidence) when the mere fact is such an achievement 🤩
English has been a language that was mandatory for people who wanted to succeed, like going to a renowned university or getting a prestigious job. Everyone who wanted to go to a good university needed to achieve a high level in TOEFL, TOEIC, or any other English language tests. However, as our society has become more and more competitive, the power of English has become much stronger. Koreans often say that there are so many people who speak English so well that if you only speak a medium or decent level of English, you will never get a chance to get a good job or a chance to go to a renowned university.
This is the reason that most Korean parents nowadays are crazy about getting their children to learn English as early as possible. The problem, however, is that they are learning English merely by rote only to get a high score for exams at school. Personally, I believe that learning English should have an aim not to make students compete to get a better score, but to provide students a chance to cultivate their ability to communicate with people who have different cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
Thanks, Ella, the inflationary pressure on English in S Korea is really disturbing.
Have you seen this article I co-authored with Jinhyun Cho some time ago: Piller, Ingrid, & Cho, Jinhyun. (2013). Neoliberalism as language policy. Language in Society, 42(1), 23-44.
Here is the abstract:
This article explores how an economic ideology—neoliberalism—serves as a covert language policy mechanism pushing the global spread of English. Our analysis builds on a case study of the spread of English as a medium of instruction (MoI) in South Korean higher education. The Asian financial crisis of 1997/98 was the catalyst for a set of socioeconomic transformations that led to the imposition of “competitiveness” as a core value. Competition is heavily structured through a host of testing, assessment, and ranking mechanisms, many of which explicitly privilege English as a terrain where individual and societal worth are established. University rankings are one such mechanism structuring competition and constituting a covert form of language policy. One ranking criterion—internationalization—is particularly easy to manipulate and strongly favors English MoI. We conclude by reflecting on the social costs of elevating competitiveness to a core value enacted on the terrain of language choice.
Thanks for introducing this article, Ingrid !!
I will read the whole article. Thank you!!
Thank you for sharing this article. English has been a mandatory subject in Vietnamese public schools for a very long time. It was recently introduced as a required subject in elementary schools. Students with an English certification such as IELTS would have an edge when applying to universities in any field, from languages, economics, to engineering. The English language has a dominant position in Vietnam compared to other languages. It is almost a priority pass for all professions. Applicants with a specific degree of English proficiency have an advantage when applying to companies, and their salaries may differ from those who do not. Moreover, Vietnamese people believe that if they have a high level of English, it will secure them a decent job in the future no matter what major they study. In addition, a person is regarded as well educated if he or she possesses a high level of English or is fluent in the language. It can be said that English provides economic and symbolic capital to its speakers in Vietnam.
Thanks, Kat, for this overview of English in Vietnam! How about Chinese in Vietnam? Is there any competition at all between the two languages? Any chance Chinese will replace English and/or become a 2nd important foreign language?
Thank you for your questions. Due to the investment and expansion of Chinese companies, Chinese is currently the language of interest in Vietnam. It can be asserted that the employment prospects for Chinese-speaking individuals are promising, but only in certain fields in which Chinese enterprises have invested. In addition, before COVID-19, Chinese tourists were a potential market for Vietnam’s tourism. However, they only travel to specific locations. So it is difficult to say whether it is the second most widely spoken foreign language after English. Besides, Korean and Japanese languages are also of value because of firms from these two nations’ desire for labour exports and investment in Vietnam. There is no competition among these languages because people have different purposes and opportunities if they own each. People who speak more than one foreign language will have greater career prospects.
Thanks, Kat, for the helpful explanation! Some of the most multilingual people I have met in my life were street vendors in tourist spaces …
My country is officially bilingual, but it is possible for someone to survive by just knowing either one of the languages. However, it’s obvious that people who know only English are in higher socioeconomic status than people who don’t. Apart from business expatriates and those who work in the global financial sector, native English teachers are employed from overseas to participate in local schools. Being funded by our government, they are entitled to salaries and benefits that are better than the local English teachers have, but they could work with different roles in a less stressful way. Local English teachers are required to offer loads of homework and do endless marking every day as well as administration work. Native English teachers just need to focus on lesson planning and teaching without the need to give and mark homework.
Being a local English teacher, I don’t see myself as being less effective in helping children with language acquisition. I believe that in most circumstances, being native in English is not an equivalent to the best English teacher. Having equal knowledge and skills, we should share the same roles instead of working towards opposite directions with different treatment.
Thanks, XM, for sharing! The system you describe is so unfair – clearly, English offers different benefits to different people. Are there efforts underway to reduce the privileges of native English teachers?
To be honest, my major concern is not about the unequal benefits we have. Apart from employing native English teachers, there are many ways to help students increase language exposure, especially with the advancement of technology, we can learn authentic English much easier than before. As compared to 20 years ago, local English teachers have become much more professional than before. Many of them obtained their qualifications in English-speaking countries. When they go back to the local workforce, they become local teachers. While both types of teachers are equipped with the same language teaching knowledge, why should the local teachers be responsible for giving heaps of homework, chasing the deadlines of a tight-scheduled curriculum and be labelled as ‘evil’ by their students? Why are native speaking teachers entitled to enjoy the best of teaching life by focusing on just teaching without the need of assignment follow-ups, and always in good term with their students? It’s time to review the whole policy after 20 years. If it is found that less drilling assignments and more inspiring learning experience are effective, why can’t we merge all the duties and re-structure the curriculum?
Sounds a bit like the way women have been incorporated into the professions: even if they get the same jobs, their tasks are subtly different and always clustered in the areas that are less exciting, get less recognition, are considered less worthy 🙁 … but there is hope and all of us have a responsibility to strive for greater equality
In Korea, if you want to work to take an exam to be a government officer, you should have TOEIC score of more than 800. To have that high level of English capability, we put a lot of energy and time in learning English. The average hours Koreans put in learning English is 10,000 hours per person. This is the power English has in Korea now. However, the exams should be looking at how prepared people are to serve others, not how well they can speak English.
I believe things will change in the future thanks to the AI translators. The Korean AI transator, Papago, says in their advertisement, “‘I dream of a world where we can have conversations without language barriers.” Now, language will not work as a ladder to success if those AI translators get more frequently used. Then every language will have same power. The AI translator might paver the way for us to get evaluated only based on our achievements and career, not by language proficiency.
Thanks, Yoonie! Love your dream but doubt it will ever be a reality. English for public servants is not about bridging language barriers but serves as a selection mechanism. If English can no longer be justified because translation AI has become so powerful (I doubt that will ever happen …), then they’ll need another test to distinguish between candidates. Maybe back to the eight-legged essay? 😉
Hi Ingrid. I really like the last sentence you wrote in this article “the role of English is no longer solely in the hands of the Anglosphere.” China has one of the greatest numbers of English learners. For several decades, the idea that a child’s future would be bright if they have strong English skills has deeply rooted in the minds of parents. Eight out of ten extracurricular training centres are in the business of English training, and some even dare to advertise that students with better English proficiency are more competitive and can get high-paying offers.
In 2021, the government put forward a new policy called “Double Reduction” to ease the strain of excessive homework and extracurricular activities on children. The policy did ease students’ burden in some way, but ironically intensified parents’ anxiety and caused a lot of extracurricular teachers to lose their jobs. Among a series of specific measures posed in 2022, English is the only subject with negative changes. For example, the required teaching hours of English lessons have been drastically reduced, accounting for just 6-8% of the middle school curriculum standards, meaning that middle school children can only take English lessons once or twice a week (45-90 minutes per week) at school. These reduced hours were allocated to subjects pertaining to Chinese cultures.
Chinese parents still attach importance to children’s English learning and are always prepared to invest more time and money to provide them with alternative English learning resources. I can see that it takes some time for people to gradually adjust to the effects of such an unexpected policy, given that the country is trying to weaken the status of the English language. Will parents’ views towards the English language change the near future?
Thanks, Ste! What’s happening in China is so fascinating! I don’t know the answer to your question, obviously, but I believe that if China manages to get the country’s “English fever” under control, other Asian countries will follow, and English as a global language could crash quite quickly …
Ste: ‘…some even dare to advertise that students with better English proficiency are more competitive and can get high-paying offers.’ In the privatized universities of China in my decade there until 2007 some employers even dared to pay American teachers more. My Yankee accent ain’t what it used to be!
Ste’s assertion that ‘the country is trying to weaken the status of the English language…’ rings true with me given recent tensions in the wake of Nancy Pelosi’s recent travels but I’d be grateful vis-a-vis sources or other confirmations of a such potentially seismic shift.
Thanks, Paul! Here is an overview of the Double Reduction Policy: https://www.dese.gov.au/download/13152/double-reduction-plan-reduces-homework-and-campus-tutoring-chinese-school-students/25331/double-reduction-plan-reduces-homework-and-campus-tutoring-chinese-school-students/pdf; there are other efforts, like making English less important on the gaokao or incentivising academics to publish in Chinese … Ste might have more references but there are clear efforts to diminish the role of English – the big question is whether it will work …
I come up with two ideas about how English is associated with power in Japan. First, as you mentioned in the article, English became a working language in the 2010s in some Japanese companies, such as Rakuten, Uniqlo, and Shiseido. The population of Japan is projected to decrease, and these companies need to expand into foreign countries. They require people who are looking for a job to gain high scores on English language tests such as TOEIC. Therefore, people have no choice but to take tests to find a job in a Japanese company.
Second, English is linked to power in Okinawa, which was treated as an area of the U.S. from 1945 to 1972. Even after it was returned to Japan, there are still 31 army bases there. When I saw a menu at a restaurant near the base, I was surprised that English was written first and Japanese followed English. Also, English was written slightly bigger than Japanese. It was just a menu in a small restaurant, but English on the menu related to the power of the U.S. and its Army.
Thanks, Japanda! I really like the way you have paid attention to the details of that menu. It is language and communication choices on mundane everyday items like menus that help create and recreate the power of English on a daily basis.
When it comes to speaking English in a Cantonese speaking country like Hong Kong or Macau, it is also reflecting the concept of hierarchy at the same time. Using Macau as an example, people who speak fluent English or use English as their main language are typically people who are immigrants from a foreign country, people who study or had studied in an international school, or people who are highly educated. The number of the population may be relatively small but these people are more likely to receive a higher social status than others.
Casinos and hotels are the main income of Macau, people with a higher social status normally get a higher position (e.g. a president of a hotel), which also spreads the use of English in those areas. As a result, it is very easy to come across hierarchy when it comes to English language proficiency. One of the most prominent examples is seeking a job in those areas. If an individual wants to compete for a higher position, English is still a ‘must’ regardless of whether Cantonese is the official language of the job or not. This can become a struggle for those who use English as a foreign language. From one of my experiences, I remembered having a job interview with the manager from a hospital. While asking me questions, he indirectly tested my language proficiency by suddenly switching Cantonese to English.
Thanks, Sharkie! Amazing that Portuguese is technically an official language in Macao but English is practically much more important …
INGRID’S ENGLISH: An elephant in the room named the East China Sea.
All through my decade as a language teacher in the People’s Republic of China Ingrid’s questions weighed on my mind. The closing lines of her splendid analysis take on added weight when weighing up the suboptimal language level attained – even by English majors in China. Is it because China’s universities are largely privatized that 99% of graduates pass all English exams with flying colours? It’s not lost on most of them, even those with ten years under their belt studying the language of Shakespeare, that conversational fluency will remain a lifelong challenge and that poetry, humour and slang are to be avoided. Perhaps the leader of China is waiting to see what happens to the leader of Russia before he re-educates Taiwan and sets ‘speaker numbers plummeting’ in the wake of such a conflict – if America gets involved. Putting aside momentarily the Anthropocene, global warming, extant wars and a zillion unspeakable social problems all coalescing in 2022, am I alone in seeing a dystopian world catalysed by a breakdown in Sino-Japanese relations? (BTW, the popularity of English in Japan is no mystery given the Marshall Plan but it’s an even bigger failure to communicate than in China.) Incidentally, not since the Great Helmsman’s rule, until this tumultuous year, has the Communist Party of China countenanced such a thing that potentially resembles President Putin’s two decade tenure in the Kremlin. On the eve of World War Two, as banking and business behemoths were ensnaring the world and Herr Hitler was dismembering central Europe, America’s greatest songwriter cavalierly summed up our present nightmare in devil may care understatement like this: “There may be trouble ahead. Soon we’ll be without the moon [so] let’s face the music and dance.” In de facto autocracies like China and Russia where the executive, the judiciary and the media are dominated by one person, world war is a non-starter while people like Yelstin, Gorbachev, Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao are in charge. How popular will the imperial and colonial language of business as usual remain in the post apocalyptic era? Chou Enlai’s retort, as to the effects of the French Revolution, quite appeals to me as an old white male with a reasonable command of English: “It’s too early to tell.”. The problem is the poop is about to hit the fan big time and my half-Chinese children ain’t got my command of the lingo, y’all hear?
Thanks, Paul, for your wide-ranging response! You will not be surprised to hear that German has a word for this 😉 … “Endzeitstimmung”: the feeling that comes from realizing that the apocalypse is upon us
Ja, meine Dame Ingrid, aber zeitveist ist internationaler.
I really like this concept of “misrecognition” and its application to English. This is also why I think it’s so important to understand our own language ideologies and what they mean for all the different types of Englishes that exist in the world.
I agree that this next phase of the British monarchy will be interesting to see!
Thanks, Brynn! If you are interested in language and misrecognition, the go-to reference is: Bourdieu, Pierre. (1991). Language and symbolic power (Gino Raymond & Matthew Adamson, Trans.). Cambridge: Polity.
Thank you!!