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Language in AustraliaNext Gen Literacies

(dis)possession and (un)belonging

By March 15, 2022August 21st, 2023251 Comments8 min read11,041 views

 

The logo on the side of the bus shelter

Latin at the bus stop

Recently, I was out for a walk when it started to rain. Seeking shelter in a nearby bus stop, I had time to look around, and I noticed something I had never noticed before although I must have seen it often: a Ku-Ring-Gai Council logo.

The logo is a circle of about 20 centimeters in diameter. It depicts two cartoon characters, one sitting, one standing, encircled by the words “KU-RING-GAI COUNCIL” and “SERVIENDO GUBERNO.”

The cartoon characters are presumably intended to depict two Aboriginal men of an earlier period. The drawing is crude, and the image seems retrograde, out of place, and just plain weird. Just to be clear, I’m not talking about some dumb schoolboy graffiti but about a high-quality official logo emblazoned into the plexiglass wall of a bus shelter.

I have been struggling to make sense of it since I first noticed it.

The main council logo (Image credit: Wikipedia)

The context

Ku-Ring-Gai Council is a local government area on Sydney’s North Shore. It has close to 120,000 inhabitants and happens to be Australia’s most socioeconomically privileged area.

The logo I noticed at the bus stop is not the main logo used by Ku-ring-gai Council but an older version. The current main logo depicts a stylized landscape.

However, the logo on the bus stop is not just a historical logo, either: it appears on bus stops of a certain age (less than 10 years old); it appears on signs for bushwalking trails; and it appears on the web.

So, we are dealing with a legacy logo that might be in the process of being phased out but is still imprinted on the landscape.

Indigenous Ku-ring-gai

Ever since I first came to Australia, I’ve liked the romanticism of the name “Ku-ring-gai”. It’s not only the name of a large council area, but also of a suburb where I lived for many years, and a national park I love to explore.

The O’Rourke Family Crest (Image credit: orourkerundle.com)

Like many non-Indigenous Australians, I was, for a long time, under the impression that “Ku-ring-gai” – or a version thereof – was the name of the original inhabitants of northern Sydney. The name made the area more “authentic” for me and seemed to connect the area where I live to its precolonial past.

Inevitably, it turned out to be a naïve fantasy.

A 2015 report by the Aboriginal Heritage Office showed that the term “Ku-ring-gai” was the 19th century invention of a Scottish schoolteacher. The word may – or may not – have been used by some pre-colonial Indigenous people for – well, we don’t know what.

The report concludes:

It is unfortunate that the term Guringai has become widely known in northern Sydney and it is understandable that people wish to use it as it is convenient to have a single word to cover the language, tribe/nation, identity and culture of a region. However, it is based on a nineteenth century fiction and the AHO [Aboriginal Heritage Office] would argue that the use of the term Guringai or any of its various spellings such as Kuringgai is not warranted given its origin and previous use. It is not authentic to the area, it was coined by a non-Aboriginal person and it gives a misleading impression of the connectivity of some original clan boundaries. It is part of the story of this place that there is no certainty over tribal names, language groups or dreaming stories. To project the opposite is to continue this fiction. (p. 40)

On stolen land

Student uniforms get Latin mottos out into the streets (Image credit: Herald Sun)

Today, Indigenous people in the Ku-ring-gai area are most notable by their absence. The 2016 census recorded 0.2% Aboriginal inhabitants for Ku-ring-gai Council, well below the national average of 2.8%, and even well below the Greater Sydney average of 1.5%.

Why this is so can be summed up quickly: the Sydney area is where the British colonization of Australia began and the Sydney people bore the brunt of the initial invasion, including frontier violence, new diseases brought along by Europeans, and dispossession.

We live on stolen land here.

Still, this is not something polite people like to say and the Council website mutters incoherently about the absence of Indigenous people:

The arrival of Lt James Cook in 1770 devastated in what amounts to the blink of an eye an incomparable and ancient people.
Those not lost completely were altered as survivors gathered into new groups. Much of what we do know about Sydney’s clans must be gleaned from archaeological remains.
While there are some families who have identified links to original Sydney clans-people, very few traditional stories remain about the sites and landscapes of the Ku-ring-gai area.

Latin motto on a military honor roll (Image credit: Monuments Australia)

I also take these ramblings to be an interpretation of sorts of the stick figures in the logo: the mythical Indigenous cartoon characters suggest authenticity and belonging for non-Indigenous Australians.

In the same way that the current logo symbolizes nature and the land through stylized trees, the legacy logo does so through the depiction of stylized Aboriginal people.

“By serving, I rule!”

While the imagery projects an idyllic fantasy about belonging, the Latin motto accompanying the two Aboriginal cartoon characters in the logo is about power and possession.

The motto SERVIENDO GUBERNO is not accompanied by a translation. As the study of Latin has become exceedingly rare, I’m guessing that few people will be able to translate for themselves, and likely just ignore the motto.

For those who can be bothered, a now-defunct council website provides this explanation:

The Ku-ring-gai Council motto, ‘serviendo guberno’, means ‘I govern by serving’ and has been used by Council since 1928. It is included in the logo to reaffirm Council’s fundamental commitment to serving the community. (quoted from Friends of Ku-ring-gai Environment)

The logo of private boys’ school Scots College (Image credit: Wikipedia)

Mottos are notoriously ambiguous, and this is one possible interpretation. But it is not the full story. My translation is “By serving, I rule.”

What kind of service?

Let’s start with serviendo. The etymological connection with “service” is obvious but what kind of service? Just friendly customer service? Probably not.

The motto serviendo guberno has long been used in the coat-of-arms of a knightly Irish clan, the O’Rourkes, and is clearly associated with military service there. From armed service, the idea of service inherent in the motto later seems to have become broadened a bit to all forms of service that men render to the nation:

Since the demise of the Gaelic order O’Rourkes have continued to follow the proud tradition of serving their nation as soldiers, priests, teachers, civil servants and firefighters. (Another O’Rourke website)

The martial interpretation of serviendo is also backed up by its use in war memorials such as the Sandakan Memorial dedicated to members of the Australian and British armed forces who served in World War II in Borneo.

Who rules?

The Latin verb gubernare has obvious associations with “govern.” It can also mean “to direct, rule, guide.”

“Serviendo guberno” on a war memorial (Image credit: NSW War Memorial Register)

It is here used in the simple present first person singular: “I rule.”

Why would council identify as “I”? Surely, “we” or some agentless form would make much more sense.

One way to interpret the first-person singular is to put the motto into the mouth of the individual colonist, a white male subject. Alternatively, the “I” might be read as that of the sovereign; not the democratic sovereign of the people, of course, but the individual sovereign of the monarch – the Crown as the legitimizing force of colonization.

Why Latin?

Non-English monolingual signage is exceedingly rare in Australia. Where such signage appears, the language in question is often Latin.

In addition to Ku-ring-gai Council, many institutions have Latin mottos and slogans. All the following examples appear in Latin only, without translation. The translations in brackets are mine.

The Monuments Australia database shows many war memorials that include slogans such as “Quo fas et gloria ducunt” (“Where right and glory lead”) or “Pro patria” (“For the fatherland”).

“Masculinity is being enacted” says this school logo (my translation) (Image credit: Wikipedia)

Schools often have Latin mottos. And they really get Latin out into the street as school children sport the mottos on their backpacks, uniforms, and caps.

Examples include “Virile agitur” (“Masculinity is being enacted”), “Utinam patribus nostris digni simus” (“May we were worthy of our fathers”), or “vi et animo” (“with force and courage”).

Australian universities also have a thing for Latin phrases, from ANU’s “Naturam primum cognoscere rerum” (“To know the nature of things first”) to Sydney’s notoriously confusing “Sidere mens eadem mutato” (“The same spirit under different stars”).

Latin is supposedly a dead language. But there is probably more Latin signage in the Australian linguistic landscape than there is signage in any Indigenous language.

Like the cartoon characters in the center of the logo, the function of Latin in these mottos is symbolic. The Latin phrases emblazoned on Australia’s institutional linguistic landscape do not per se mean much: too few people know Latin for this to be the case; and some of the explanations, translations and interpretations provided on institutional websites are – linguistically speaking – pure fantasy.

The use of Latin is another way to anchor Australia’s whiteness in history. Latin symbolically links Australian institutions to European deep history, to a history that happened long before the colonization of Australia: classical antiquity, the Roman Empire, and medieval Christianity.

Marking white possession and belonging

Together, the Aboriginal cartoon characters and the incomprehensible Latin motto do two things in a place where both the presence of actual Indigenous people and any meaningful use of the Latin language is negligible. First, the mythical – in contrast to physical, material, or real – presence of Indigenous people offers non-Indigenous Australians a fantasy of belonging. Second, Latin provides the same illusion but in starker terms: not as a fuzzy feeling but as the legitimacy of possession. Together, they mask unbelonging and erase dispossession.

My thinking about the logo and Latin in the Australian linguistic landscape has greatly benefitted from Aileen Moreton-Robinson’s The White Possessive: Property, Power, and Indigenous Sovereignty. The author argues that the national belonging of non-Indigenous Australians is predicated on their willful forgetting of the fundamentals of their residence in this land: colonial conquest, racism, and the dispossession of Indigenous Australians.

Indigenous Australians can never forget or overlook the evidence of their dispossession. For non-Indigenous Australians it is easy to forget and not to notice – we have built a world that provides a fantasy of belonging while hiding the original theft.

Ingrid Piller

Author Ingrid Piller

Dr Ingrid Piller, FAHA, is Distinguished Professor of Applied Linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Her research expertise is in bilingual education, intercultural communication, language learning, and multilingualism in the context of migration and globalization.

More posts by Ingrid Piller

Join the discussion 251 Comments

  • Mahaan says:

    This vlog really surprised me providing the information about the name of the places in Australia based on the indigenous language. However, most of the places are named with the powerful person, Prime minister, king, or the colonizers. Most of the highways, street names and popular places are specially related to the ruler’s name. In this unit, I have learned that the language is important to preserve the culture and tradition of indigenous people so to preserve the indigenous language there has been great effort in Australia giving the name of places in indigenous language. It is not only preserving the indigenous language, but it is also a way of respecting and honoring indigenous culture. It serves as bridge between the past original culture and present new culture. It is the way to celebrate and embrace the diversity of languages of the world. If the indigenous culture is not saved in any form, there can be the risk of loss of cultural identity.

  • Mazhar says:

    It is interesting to read this article. It’s good to read that aboriginal languages are given importance because it’s the only way to create harmony in the country. Every country has many different languages dialect and people prefer to their own native language but the national language varies from their aboriginal language. In Pakistan, National language is Urdu; but people living in different areas of the country speak different languages. But when Urdu language was being chosen as a National language it faced many criticism by different cultural groups who see it as a mean of cultural dominance.by Urdu speaking majority. Languages play significant role in asserting the ownership of different groups. The use of language is closely tied to cultural identities and has historically been used as a marker of group ownership and territorial claims.

  • Abdulla Zubayr Nafea says:

    Thanks for sharing such an excellent article. I have been here in Australia for almost two years. I am a travel enthusiast. I have visited many places like the Great Barrier Reef, Gold Coast, and Byron Bay during this time. Now me and my friends are planning to visit Uluru (Ayers Rock). It is a massive sandstone monolith in the heart of the Northern Territory’s arid “Red Centre.”. Uluru is sacred to indigenous Australians and is thought to have formed around 550 million years ago. It’s within Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, including the 36 red-rock domes of the formation of the Kata Tjuta (colloquially “The Olgas”). I searched in Google and found that the name Uluru comes from the Pitjantjatjara language and means “great pebble.” The name Ayers Rock was given to the rock by the British explorer William Gosse in 1873. The name Kata Tjuta, also known as the Olgas, comes from the Pitjantjatjara language and means “many heads.” These rocks are sacred to the Anangu people, who have lived there for thousands of years. Learning about the Indigenous names in this area is a great opportunity. It will help me to appreciate the rich cultural history of Uluru and Kata Tjuta.

    • Thanks, Abdulla, for sharing about your travels! Hope you have fun! The hubris of Europeans just attaching their own names or names of their benefactors to places they saw for the first time (as in Ayres Rock and Mt. Olga) is staggering. Hope today’s tourists and travelers can tread more lightly.

  • Panda Girl says:

    I can tell that there was a lot of thought put into the title of this week’s article: (dis)possession and (un)belonging. The juxtaposition in the relationships of each word to one another makes sense in every direction, it is quite impressive. Possession and belonging, dispossession and unbelonging, dispossession and belonging. Possession and unbelonging. In each way, in relation to the article, it hauntingly reminds me of historical injustices done to the Kimberly Stolen Generation.
    The first time that I arrived in Australia was in 2016. The University of Notre Dame in Broome was hosting a conference about “Valuing Indigenous Cultures and Traditions in the Care for our Common Home” at the time and I was sent by my university from my home country to participate. There, I met a man named Mark Bin Bakar, (who I later found out was an Indigenous Australian Musician, much to my delight) and he said this line that stayed with me, “The wounds have healed, but the scars are left behind.”
    An example of such scars are the names of places that are left behind by colonizers. For instance, in Broome, there is a place called Roebuck Bay. The Indigenous name of the place is “Wanamalu”, in renaming the place, the colonial imposition has dispossessed and completely disregarded the existing culture of the Yawuru clan (Indigenous people of the area). Ownership of the land has been taken away, just like that, and the Yawuru people who stayed no longer felt like they belonged. That is an example of how language has changed the culture in the area. Using the name Wanamalu instead of Roebuck Bay could be a good way to revitalize and respect the Indigenous connections, and it will also foster inclusiveness.

    • Thank you for sharing that powerful quote! Have you considered doing your presentation about Yawuru language and culture?

      • Panda Girl says:

        I considered it, but upon trying to find data on Yawuru people, language, and culture, I have come back empty-handed as there is a lack of credible academic papers or research to base my presentation on.

  • Ally says:

    When I first moved to Sydney I lived in Kirribilli, Milson’s Point which was originally identified as Kiarabilli in 1832 and is the traditional land of the Cammeraygai people. I find the aboriginal names to be so lyrical and fascinating, Kirribilli is so much more interesting than Milson’s Point.
    In Canada I grew up living very remotely, surrounded by First Nation’s people and culture. This is how my fascination with cultures and languages began. On Vancouver Island where I grew up, there are many First Nation names used. There are 50 First Nation people on Vancouver Island in three tribal regions of Coast Salish, Nuu chah nulth or Nootka and Kwakiutl or Kwakwaka’wakw. However as in Australia, Vancouver Island was first colonized by the British so place names are predominantly a mixture of British English and some First Nations names such as Esquimalt and K’omoks(Comox). In 2020 the provincial government identified 20 locations that would display sign posts in dual languages. First Nation’s people in Canada suffered a similar tragic fate to Australian Aboriginal people however there has been more acknowledgment, respect, financial compensation, self-governing rights and land afforded to them compared to Australian Aboriginals. In part I believe that may be due to the historical differences whereby the British needed the First Nation people’s help to fend off the Americans constantly trying to invade. The situation is far from perfect and there are still tragic consequences faced by First Nations people today as a consequence of our shameful history of stolen land and genocide.

  • Dory says:

    I have just started living in Australia. I live in Epping and in this 1 month of my stay, I have found the names of the places here quite fascinating, as it is a mix of English and aboriginal names. One day, I came across the name Wolli Creek. Upon researching, I have found out that the word is of Aboriginal origin. It sounded quite interesting to me as in my country, Bangladesh, I do not know the name of any place, which came from the indigenous community. This article made me think about this further and I found out that Rangamati Hill District, a district in Bangladesh with a total of 386,153 indigenous people as per the 2011 census doesn’t have its name coming from the indigenous community. I did some research and found out that the initial name of the place was Reang/Riang Country before the arrival of East India Company. The Chakma (indigenous community) settlement began here with many other indigenous communities in 1737 when, Sher Mosta Khan, an indigenous leader took refuge with the Mughals during the Mughal empire.
    “Ranga” means color/hue and mati means “ground/soil”. Even though, the name doesn’t have an indigenous origin but it has a name connecting the mythology and cultural history of the region. This article made me think a lot about the history of the indigenous people in my country and how we are falling behind in knowing them, their history, food and their languages along with paying them the respect that they deserve.

  • Iris says:

    As I encountered the non-English name “Tallawong” on the Metro Station screen at Macquarie University, it sparked my curiosity about the language behind it, reflecting my fascination with the many areas in Australia that have retained, adopted, or anglicized non-English names, which I have encountered during my two months in the country.

    Indigenous place names in Australia hold cultural value, reflecting deep connections to the land. Examples like Wahroonga and Parramatta showcase Indigenous input, carrying historical, spiritual, and geographical meanings. Indigenous place naming practices in Vietnam share similarities with those in Australia. Certain areas in Vietnam are named to reflect the ethnic languages spoken by indigenous communities. For instance, Daklak province has areas named Krongpak, Ea Kar, Ea H’leo, and Buon Ma Thuot city which name had already been translated into Vietnamese.

    However, translating these languages to the Vietnamese national language, which uses Latin-based script, presents challenges in accurately representing pronunciation and nuances. Furthermore, many ethnic languages in Vietnam lack written form documentation, affecting the preservation and understanding of these languages and their associated place names. According to Ta Van Thong and Ta Quang Tung (2019), the lack of official regulations for calling and writing original ethnic minority words in Vietnamese results in inconsistency across publications, leading to varied interpretations and pronunciations of these words. These factors highlight the complexities and importance of honoring linguistic diversity and indigenous heritage in Vietnam.

    Summing up, this recognition and preservation is essential to respecting Indigenous heritage, fostering inclusivity, and contributing to reconciliation efforts. Preservation and celebration of these cultures require engagement and awareness.
    _________________________________________
    Reference:
    Thông, T. V., & Tùng, T. Q. (2019). Cách gọi và cách viết tên ngôn ngữ các Dân Tộc Ở Việt Nam. Tạp Chí Nghiên Cứu Dân Tộc, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.25073/0866-773x/262

    • Thanks, Iris! What did you find out about Tallawong?
      I think the narrative that we can just restore names and that all we need to do is find the correct spelling and pronunciation is a bit facile … restoring original place names may be a form of recognition but it doesn’t change the basic fact of dispossession, colonization, and subjugation 🙁

  • Jung Ung HWANG says:

    If there’s one thing Sydney is best known for, it’s beach areas. When I first came to Australia on a working holiday, my friends and I visited Bondi Beach, Coogee Beach, Clovelly Beach, Bronte Beach, and more, and I left with many unforgettable memories. In this class, I was fascinated to learn that many of the Sydney area’s place names are based on Aboriginal language expressions, so I used The Dictionary of Sydney to research the origins of the names of the beaches I visited.

    First, the most famous, Bondi Beach. I thought the word ‘Bondi’ was an English expression – there’s an underwear brand called ‘Bond’, which I thought was similar, so I assumed it was Old English, meaning to fit like a bone or to be cool. However, Bondi means ‘sound of waves breaking on a beach’ in the Aboriginal language. It’s not what I expected, but it’s a cool name.

    The case of Coogee Beach is also interesting. The name comes from the Aboriginal language ‘Koojah’, which means bad smell, smelly place. The reason for this name is that Coogee Beach was smelly due to its abundance of algae and fish.

    • Thanks! These are great example but I must say I’ve never believed that “Coogee” would have meant “stinking place” – why would a fishing people consider fish and algae smelling? From what we’ve heard about the difficulties of that first encounter between First Fleeters and the Sydney people, it’s much more likely that someone misunderstood something …

  • Mamduha Hossain Sharita says:

    I don’t know much about the indigenous language of Australia. However, I would like to talk about the indigenous language of Bangladesh, though I have little knowledge regarding the indigenous language.
    There are around 54 indigenous groups of people in Bangladesh who speak at least 36 languages along with Bangla language. These languages are disappearing gradually because of some negligence. Though the government of Bangladesh took some initiatives like including at least primary education for at least five indigenous groups. Despite of these indigenous languages are decreasing as government didn’t pay proper attention to them. This led to language loss and only taking the initiative towards education can’t protect the language. So, where language is eliminated people ultimately lose their identity also.

    • You are so right. Linguistic diversity in Bangladesh would make a great presentation topic – or you could even single out one particular minority language …

    • Durian says:

      Thank you Mamduha for your writing, your writing has extended my thinking about the context of indigenous languages in Bangladehs aspect of languages and cultures in contact. I just want to share my ideas on how I have perceived it. I have understood from your writing that there is a complex interplay between language diversity, government initiatives, language loss, and cultural identity in the context of indigenous languages in Bangladesh. I think it is important to keep and maintain languages as it is one of the critical issues of language endangerment. The languages should be maintained instead of losing it due to no one longer speaking it or passing id down to new generations. Thank you for sharing, and I have chosen your writing because there is somewhat I can relate to.

  • Melisa Nguyen says:

    I have only been to Australia for a few months and have not had the opportunity to interact with indigenous languages. However, I would like to mention the local indigenous language in Vietnam- dialects of some Vietnamese ethics. In the past, quite a few people paid attention to the local dialects. However, recently, when social networks developed and talking clips of some ethnic people were uploaded, some of their dialect words became well-known and were even included in the music. Dialect words are preferred by young people because they are interesting and special. For example, the word “à lôi” in the Tay language (an ethnic group in Vietnam) is an exclamation meaning “oh my god” inserted into the beat of a catchy Vietnamese song that has become popular. Many people feel curious and race to search for the meaning of that word to the extent that there are a few articles explaining the meaning of “À Lôi” including me. In another similar case a few years ago, the phrase “ai mặc noọng lái lai” also became famous thanks to its use in a piece of music. The song then became famous not only for its catchy melody but also for its use of a strange or curious phrase for young people. “Ai mặc noọng lái lai” means “I love you so much” and comes from the Thai dialect (Thai is also an ethnic group in Vietnam). After this phrase became famous, many young people used it to confess to their crush.

  • Arghavan says:

    Thanks for sharing this fascinating article with us. From the first moment I entered Sydney, I was stunned by the mixture of British and indigenous names next to each other. I was hoping most are accurate names like Parramatta as you had mentioned. Names like Turramurra, Mount Ku-ring-gai, Wahroonga and Muogamarra definitely seemed like an aboriginal name to me. Well, Ku-ring-gai with an exception, well played!
    However, I did some online research to find out that most probably Berowra comes from an Aboriginal origin as well. This is interesting to me since I spent my very first month of arriving in Australia at my cousin’s, who resides in Berowra Heights. I loved the natural views and of course, it can get a bit cold and windy there! It has been speculated that the name Berowra is a term for “windy place.” Also, Dharug words for wind like guwarra resemble the word Berowra. Feel free to read more about the topic in the article (link shared below) and share any extra information.

    https://berowramuseum.wordpress.com/2012/10/13/whats-in-a-name/

    • Thanks, Arghavan! I like Berowra, too – great bushwalking ☺️ … I don’t think we should necessarily always look for the meaning of Indigenous names. Place names often don’t have a specific meaning or it has been lost in the depth of time …

  • An Ng says:

    I recently spent over a month living in Australia, where I don’t really have many opportunities to encounter Indigenous languages. However, this article reminded me of the Cham language, an Indigenous language in Vietnam. This language is spoken by the Cham people, who populate in Eastern Cambodia and Southern Vietnam. It uses a unique phonogram alphabet similar to Arabic. Cham is primarily spoken in central coastal regions of Vietnam such as Ninh Thuan province, Phan Rang city, and Quang Nam province… The names of these places also originate from the Cham language. Take the name Ninh Thuan as an example, ‘Ninh’ means ‘temple’ and ‘Thuan’ could refer to ‘chasm’ or ‘rift’. ‘Phan Rang’ is known as ‘Pô Klông Garai’ in Cham, tied to the Po Klong Garai Cham tower complex. These places names hold historical and cultural value not only to Cham people particularly but also Vietnamese in general. However, Cham is considered to be an endangered language with nearly 320,000 speakers in total according to UNESCO. In recent years, there are some efforts that have been made to teach Cham to parts of the Cham population who are losing connection to their native tongue. Hopefully, in the future, we are still able to see the beauty of Cham culture and language.

  • Sonintsetseg says:

    Nowadays, people around the world are moving to another country or continent to find and explore new environments based on their alternative desires and necessities. All individuals, not only immigrants or temporary residents but also travelers from other countries, have to know their visiting places’ histories and chronicles. On the other hand, people are just attracted to modern skyscraper buildings and other materialistic things rather than the history of those places. However, in Australia, if we go around the city and find places that have indigenous definitions, we will start to think that the government or the country really does care about the indigenous people and their existence. Unfortunately, after being acknowledged for the brutal honesty and definition of these words (places’ names and mottos) and depictions, I started to think about the other side of the history.

    • Thanks, Sonintsetseg! I agree that knowing history is important – for better or worse, we walk in the paths that those who have come before us have shaped for us …

  • J i F says:

    Thank you for sharing this. When I moved to Sydney 3 months ago, I was wondering why many places are British origin words, but some look unfamiliar with non-English pronunciations.

    After reading your article, I researched the information about places throughout the city that were Aboriginal names until I discovered that when colonists settled, they gave new names in their familiar language and discarded the original names altogether.

    By the way, the Geographical Names Board reassigned dual names to natural places with both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal names in 2022 such as rivers, beach, harbour, etc., to show respect for Aboriginal Heritage and values of both indigenous and non-Aboriginal people that government holds equally. Tumbalong (@Darling Harbour) has Tumbalong Park where I often take my baby to play.
    Also, many places borrow Aboriginal names, such as Bondi beach (Boondi), Yarra (crab), or Parramatta which is stemmed from Aboriginal name.

    Historically, wounds have been inflicted against Aboriginals by colonists that would have nothing to compensate for, but an approach to show an apology and respect for those who existed before is a good starting point to heal those wounds, rather than erasing from history. Remembering mistakes leaves lessons for future generations.

    • Thanks, Jif! Hope you also got a chance to listen to last week’s lecture and read Inga Clendinnen’s Dancing with strangers

      • Mahaan Karki says:

        I arrived in Australia a couple of months ago so i haven’t got the opportunity to hear the indigenous language but I find this vlog amazing. TilI now I had never given a thought on the effect and domination of powerful language over indigenous communities and language. To speak about Nepal, it has always been an independent country and has never been colonized or ruled by any nation. So I can’t directly relate the topic of the article to Nepal. But to some extent i can connect the topic of the vlog before the unification of Nepal. Before the unification of Nepal, it was divided into several small territories and different languages were used in those territories. Gradually, King Prithvi Narayan Shah started the unification campaign and conquered small states. The Nepali language has been the official language in Nepal but different words are borrowed from different indigenous communities and languages to form Nepali language. The Nepal government has recognised 59 indigenous communities known as adivasi janajati with different languages which comprise 35.8 percent of the population.
        Regarding the naming of places according to the name of the ruler, we can find in Nepal that different places are named after the name of the ruler. Most of the populated street names are named after the name of the ruler or King. Many times in Nepal’s history, the monarchy was overthrown and the Prime minister took the power. So we can find many places in Nepal named after the person who was in government with power.

        Thank you for the amazing article.

  • Hao says:

    Hi Ingrid, thanks for your exciting article. I’ve only been in Australia for two months, so I haven’t left much Indigenous language around. However, I’m sure everyone knows ‘boomerang’. I learned that, before ‘boomerang’ was widely known by this name, ‘boomerang’ was called a ‘birgan’ by Aborigines around Moreton Bay and a ‘barragadan’ by those in north-western New South Wales. ‘Boomerangs’ are not only an internationally recognized symbol of Australia but also a symbol of the cultural endurance of Aboriginal people, which are like ‘wooden swords.’

    • Thanks, Hao! I’m sure you’ll see more of these commodified images of Indigeneity in tourism spots. I hope you’ll see other traces of Indigenous Languages and Cultures, too, including on Wallumattagul Campus 🙂

  • Yulan says:

    I’ve never studied about the indigenous language aspect of Australia. But I would like to talk a little bit about the indigenous languages that exist in China. Many people would assume that people from Beijing, China speak standard Mandarin, but that’s not really true. Beijing also has a local indigenous language – Beijing dialect. Anyone who knows the Forbidden City will know that the plaques and some of the descriptions in the Forbidden City contain not only Chinese characters but also Manchu characters from the Qing Dynasty. Beijing dialect is neither Mandarin nor Manchu, but it was popularized in the Yongzheng period of the Qing Dynasty to differentiate between Manchus and Han Chinese. So, if you are traveling in Beijing, you might want to take a walk through the hutongs (alley). Due to the popularity of Mandarin nowadays, it is basically hard to hear Beijing dialect in other places, except for the indigenous families in Beijing who still use it. However, the names of many attractions in Beijing still follow the pronunciation of Beijing dialect.

    • How fascinating! Would love it if you decided to do a presentation about Beijing Dialect 😻 … Manchu in China would also make an amazing topic.

      • If Yulan makes a presentation on Manchu may the odd guest attend, Ingrid jaan? Alternatively, perhaps a paper will ensue? Official signage in Manchu chiselled into ginormous columns in the Temple of Heaven, Tiananmen, fascinated this amateur linguist. My understanding, albeit little researched by me, is that the Manchus for a while foisted their language onto the Han but soon resiled themselves to the richness and vastness of Mandarin. Is it true back in the day that the Manchu powers that be voluntarily relinquished their imperial linguistic domination and by osmosis took to Mandarin like Beijing ducks take to water? Is this assessment accurate and is Manchu really a Semitic language?

        On imperial Manchu’s relatively abrupt demise: Though for generations a primary language of the Qing dynasty (1636–1911), neither the last emperor (Pu Yi, 1906–1967) nor his brother Pu Jie (1907–1994) could speak it; not that their relatives residing in Japan, nor any one in China outside Xinjiang or academia is able to fluently speak that Semitic language today. Despite the edicts and efforts of Pu Yi’s imperial ancestors to foster, and later to revive, the once mighty Manchu tongue a mere dozen or so part-speakers of pure Manchu reside today in Beijing, Shenyang and perhaps in a location or two nearer the Bohai Sea.

        • Thank you, Paul, for your interest! I’m sure we could organize a guest attendance. Let’s see how this pans out – presentations will be happening in the last 3 weeks of October.
          Manchu is a Tungusic language – like Jurchen, Ewenki, etc – no Semitic connection as far as I know …

  • Jaehoon Kim says:

    Unfortunately, it is hard for me, or even us, to see Indigenous language around us unless you try to be conscious of it. Your article made me think of a village ‘Kuranda’ in Queensland where I have once been during a road trip. According to Wikipedia, the name Kuranda is derived from Yidiny language, which is an Aboriginal Australian language in Far North Queensland. the word kuran refers to the acorn leafed plant. Kuranda is such a very beautiful and homely village 25 km from Cairns in Queensland. If you visit Cairns, – it is also a beautiful city! – you can ride the skyrail cableway to get to Kuranda, appreciating scenic landscapes.

    Back then, I did not know much about Aboriginal culture, so when I encountered the word, I just thought it was such an interesting name. On second thought now, I think the name Kuranda is the dwellers’ identity itself. Wikipedia says this village was surveyed by Thomas Behan in 1888. It would have been called a different name if Thomas had insisted on changing the village name like Sydney or Melbourne (Of course it may not be true). As a result, they have preserved their own village name, showing their identity.

    Thank you for your great article!

    • Thanks, Jaehoon! I think by 1888, there was less enthusiasm for naming Australian places after British aristocracy; the greater propensity to keep Indigenous names of the times doesn’t change the fact of ongoing dispossession…

    • Sonintsetseg says:

      Hello, Jaehoon!
      Thank you for your opinion on the article about (dis)possession and (un)belonging.
      In 2019, I first visited Rapid City, South Dakota, in America. I saw a lot of depictions of how Americans were trying to introduce and embody the Native Americans through their amazing photography inside the airport and also represent them outside of the place with a huge sculpture (Siouxper Boy), which illustrates a Native American who was holding up the airplane on the left and holding below the Native American bustle (regalia) in the right hand. At first, I thought these illustrations and monuments were a wonderful demonstration of indigenous settlers. On the other hand, I met this Indigenous man who worked as a waiter there, and he was the only Indigenous American I have ever met. He told me that their people are not allowed to work and earn money. Moreover, employers and bosses in that area are not really interested in having them as part of their team. However, Slate Creek Grill’s owner never hesitated to have him in the restaurant. At the end, I realized that showing respect and taking them seriously aren’t always what they seem. Even in every country, indigenous people should be highly respected and live like others. Naming places and building statues based on their identities might not show real respect to them. Understanding, accepting, and spreading awareness of history and culture play a simple and important role in knowing and respecting indigenous people in all countries and continents.

  • Lavendar says:

    I can talk about how languages are used to mark areas in numerous situations, including India, even though I don’t have any personal experiences or contacts.

    The variety of languages and civilizations in India is very amazing. Languages have a crucial role in defining local identities and affinities, and they are frequently used to demarcate different geographical areas. India has many states that are divided along linguistic lines, and each state has its own official tongue. The complicated socioeconomic fabric of the nation is reflected in the variety of languages spoken there.

    In India, language serves as both a tool for communication and a potent indicator of identity and place. It is employed to evoke a sense of historical continuity, cultural heritage, and local pride. When place names and landmarks are derived from regional tongues, the geography and linguistic and cultural history of the region are linked.
    The fight for social justice and independence in India has been heavily influenced by language. Due to the widespread suppression of native languages during colonial control, there was a significant push for linguistic recognition and rights. After India acquired independence in 1947, this finally led to the formation of states based on languages.

    In conclusion, languages in India are crucial in defining areas, cultures, and identities, just as Indigenous languages in Australia are entwined with the territories they mark. They supply as a concrete instance of how cultures are complex and how language, geography, and community are intricately intertwined.

  • Ashiqur Rahman says:

    I’m from Dhaka, Bangladesh, so I can’t speak to the Australian experience directly, but the article did make me think about language and space in my own city. In Dhaka, we mostly use Bengali in public spaces, which is the majority language, but we also have signs in English, the global lingua franca. This sort of marks the city as both Bengali and global. We don’t, however, have any signs in the languages of our Indigenous peoples, which is a real shame. It’s like we are erasing their claim to the space, even though they have been here for thousands of years. This article has made me reflect on the power dynamics involved in language use in public spaces. It’s an eye-opener about how we, consciously or unconsciously, sideline the indigenous communities by not giving their languages the space they deserve.

  • Anonymous says:

    The use of language and imagery has a significant role in showing who holds power and who has ownership of certain spaces. Approximately 20% of Bengali words are borrowed from other languages, including Persian, Sanskrit, Arabic, and Turkish. Each of these languages narrates a story of power dynamics, cultural exchange, and Bangladesh’s historical legacy. Persian, linked to the Mughal Empire, demonstrated the authority of rulers and their administrative systems. Sanskrit, rooted in ancient cultural and religious texts, enriched the heritage of knowledge and wisdom. Arabic, the language of Islam, played a vital role in shaping religious and spiritual dimensions. Presently, there are 54 indigenous communities in Bangladesh, each speaking over 37 unique indigenous languages alongside Bangla. However, in certain parts of the country, the languages of indigenous groups aren’t given much importance and are often overlooked. This can lead these indigenous communities to feel like they don’t belong and are losing their rights to their own lands.

    • Thanks for sharing! You are right to focus on the power dynamics and historical (as well as ongoing) fights over land inscribed in place names! Might you be interested in doing your presentation about place names in Bangladesh?

      • Anonymous says:

        Hi Ingrid,
        Thank you for your response to my comment. I truly appreciate your suggestion to focus on place names in Bangladesh for my presentation.

  • Chloe Ng says:

    Before coming to Australia, I didn’t know much about the story behind Indigenous people and their language. The first time I encountered an Indigenous language was on my road trip to Wollongong after 2 months living in Sydney. When I saw the sign “Wollongong” on the street, I was confused because I didn’t know how to pronounce it correctly as its spelling doesn’t seem like English. I asked my friend, who had lived in Wollongong for more than 5 years, if it was English. Then I was totally surprised when he said that it was a word that originated from Indigenous language and most people said that it means “five islands”.
    Out of curiosity, I searched on Google and found out that it originates from an Aboriginal word- “Woolyungah”. On the website of Wollongong city council, it shows that this city used to be a place of Dharawal people who remain the Traditional Custodians of this land. In the past, Dharawal people used to live in the Illawarra region which is made up of three local government areas: Wollongong, Sallahabour and Kiama. Besides the meaning of “five islands”, people also said that Wollongong means “ground near water” or “sound of the sea”, which really makes sense for a peaceful city with beautiful beaches like Wollongong.
    I think that if we pay attention to the names of different places near Sydney, we can also encounter some other Indigenous words, which are worth discovering.

    Here’re the links that I found from Wollongong city council about the origin of this city’s name and Dharawal people:
    https://www.wollongong.nsw.gov.au/about/history-heritage
    https://www.wollongong.nsw.gov.au/about/aboriginal-culture-and-communities/a-brief-history

    • Thanks, Chloe! Great that you’ve been inspired to research the history of Wollongong and its traditional owners by the name!

    • Larissa says:

      Great insight, Chloe. I agree that we should pay attention to place names more. We often just see the signs, visit the places, and forget to give any thought to where these names are from.

  • Saya says:

    I arrived in Australia five months ago, and I thought I hadn’t encountered any indigenous languages. However, after reading this article, I realized that I hadn’t been paying close attention to the words around me. I hadn’t even realized that the name of the campus, “Wallumattagal,” had significance meaning. I had wondered why it was named that instead of simply “North Ryde,” but I hadn’t taken the time to seek out the history behind it. This was a great opportunity for me to learn about the local history.

    Reflecting on this article, it brings to mind the school songs in Japan. Throughout my school years, all the songs I sang featured the word “Musashi”, which refers to a region and a historical figure in Tokyo and its surrounding areas. “Musashi” was an important region in history, known for its connections to various battles, historical figures, and cultural developments. We sang the school song repeatedly, so everyone understood what this word represented.

    Preserving names, words, and languages is essential to remind us of history and maintain our respect for indigenous people all the time.

    • Thanks, Saya! Can you tell us more about the meaning of “Musashi” and why it’s featured in your school songs and how it relates to Tokyo?

      • Saya says:

        Thank you very much for your reply. I looked up about the “Musashi” a little bit more, so let me share about it. “Musashi” was one of the provinces in ancient Japan, which is located in Tokyo, Saitama, and Kanagawa today. This province was known for its strategic importance due to its proximity to the capital region and its connections to key trade routes. Therefore, this place was important in Japanese history, and the name “Musashi” has become symbolic and has been used in various contexts such as the name of places today.

        I hope this answer would be helpful in understanding a little bit more about “Musahi”.

  • Yeon says:

    Thank you for the article! I wondered what ‘Ku-ring-gai’ means whenever I came across a sign post in my town. I found many exotic words that differ from English in Australia. This reminds me of Hawaii, where I have stayed for a year. Living in Hawaii, I became aware that an incredible number of names for towns, roads, and mountains originated from Hawaiian language, such as Hilo (referring to first night after the new moon), and Maunakea (white mountain). In fact, the word ‘Hawaii’ is Hawaiian language which means homeland. Additionally, people commonly used simple Hawaiian expressions like Aloha (Hello), and Mahalo (Thank you) in their daily lives. I felt like living in two different cultural spheres simultaneously. As Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States in 1900s which was relatively recent, many Hawaiian languages may be remained. These indigenous languages led me to realize how Hawaiian tradition and culture coexisted within the United States.

  • China says:

    I would like to share the Indigenous language in Japan since I don’ t know Indigenous people in Australia. In Hokkaido, which is the northern part in Japan, there are indigenous people called “ainu.” The history of ainu is very long; it is said that they did trading with people in southern area of Japan back in more than 30,000 years ago. Then, they created a unique culture and used their own language for many years. The language does not have any written form or pictures, therefore, they inherited the language to next generations in spoken form. This language, ainu, influenced some names of places in Hokkaido. There are about 20 places which are named “~別(betsu)”, for example 江別(ebetsu), 登別(noboribetsu) and 士別(shibetsu). The origin of 別 is “pet”, which means a big river, in ainu. The pronunciation of “pet” changed gradually, and “別” was given to express the name in kanji. This is the reason why there are many places called “~別“ in Hokkaido. In conclusion, indigenous people, ainu, brought a great impact when naming in Hokkaido.

  • Robert says:

    Since coming to Australia, I have not yet had any real encounters with indigenous languages but there are a few things that I have noticed and found particularly interesting.
    The main thing being the custom of acknowledging “the traditional custodians of our land” before some lectures, events, gatherings or even during my return flight to Sydney from the Gold Coast. I think it is fascinating and important that many people in Sydney put a strong emphasis on acknowledging the first inhabitants of the land they live on. I cannot speak on whether it is followed up by action or whether these are just “empty words” but it is a direct contrast to my study abroad period in the USA where I have barely ever noticed any public displays of respect towards Native Americans.
    Furthermore, during a train ride to Newcastle a few weeks ago, I saw many stations that sounded like they originate from indigenous languages, for example Koolewong, Booragul, Wyee or Tuggerah. It is a definitely a topic I want to research more about during my stay here and I would be happy if you could recommend me further reading material.

    • Thanks, Robert! There are lots of reading I could recommend but I’ll try to keep this brief.
      Absolutely essential to understand social questions surrounding Indigenous languages in Australia is the work of Diana Eades. Many important pieces, and I’ll just single out this collection:
      Eades, D. (2013). Aboriginal ways of using English. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press.
      For a more linguistic perspective on the Sydney encounter than provided in the Clendinnen text, I’d also recommend Jaky Troy’s The Sydney Language.
      To get a flavor of ongoing debates, you might look up media articles about the recent renaming of Fraser Island to K’gari (e.g., SBS, Guardian).
      You might also enjoy exploring Language-on-the-Move posts tagged “Aboriginal.”

  • Hazel says:

    Which brings me to two things. One is the traces I see everywhere in New Zealand about the Maori. Road signs are also labeled with both, and in many places, you see the names of cities in Maori. My friend and I also found a fascinating point when we went to the Auckland Zoo at the time. The zoo is divided into different zones according to regions, such as South Africa, Asia, or Australia, and these are all labeled in English at the top of the sign and Maori at the bottom; however, when it comes to the New Zealand section, it is Maori at the top and English at the bottom. Because of this, we were confused from the moment we entered the park because the first thing we thought when we saw the Maori language was that we could not understand it. We just learned that the Maori language on the top of the New Zealand sign represented New Zealand. Furthermore, we needed to find out what they were doing by doing this. haha
    The second thing is that a story has been circulating in China. For many years, Cantonese made Mandarin the lingua franca by one vote. When I saw this story, I thought that if the universal language in China were Cantonese, life would have changed forever.

    • Thanks, Hazel! Was there ever a formal vote to make Mandarin the official language instead of Cantonese? By which body? Cantonese and Mandarin in China would make a great presentation topic. You might find this post useful: https://www.languageonthemove.com/power-to-fanyan/

    • Larissa says:

      Great comment, Hazel. Your reflection on New Zealand is so interesting as I also encountered the Maori language and culture when visiting. They seem to be embedded into daily life in New Zealand and when you travel around, it’s good to see the language so visible everywhere. Your post prompted me to learn a bit more about the language – I didn’t realise it had official status in New Zealand. I also love the way they are preserving some Maori traditions, such as the traditional dance – the Haka. The Haka can be seen at different ceremonies and before the New Zealand All Blacks football team play a game. It is always so good to see the Maori and non Maori players performing together – this creates a real sense of unity. It’s also a good way to showcase and preserve these traditions on the world stage.

  • Helena says:

    Thank you for sharing an interesting article. Actually, I just have been in Australia for two months so I do not have many opportunities to realize the appearance of indigenous language. However, in my beautiful country, Vietnam, especially Danang city, I can easily encounter Cham languages, the most well-known indigenous ones. The Cham people are an ethnic minority group living in the central coastal regions of Vietnam. They have a rich history dating back to ancient times so their language reflects their unique cultural heritage. There are lots of temples, clothes,etc related to Cham people in Danang city. Beside the Cham language, there are various indigenous languages like Thai, Mong, Muong because of the several ethnic minority groups in Vietnam with their own languages and cultural identities. In each area, people try to teach and introduce these languages to keep them continuing to thrive. It is really important because it not only shows us about the indigenous people but also contributes to the linguistic diversity and culture of my country.

  • Larissa says:

    This is a really interesting post. I also live in the Ku-ring-gai area and was really surpised and disappointed when I learned of the name’s origin. Your post inspired me to go on a bushwalk this week with my Dad who loves the Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park and often takes photographs of wildflowers at West Head. I had visited the Aboriginal engraving sites there many years ago but thought it was time to go again. I was happy to see signs to the engravings iincluding messages encouraging visitors to protect the sites, and a barrier around some of them, but I was suprised that there was not any Indigenous language on the signs – a missed opportunity. There was a sign about dreamtime, animals, people and materials, and it mentioned ‘mudoe’, which is a human footprint, when describing the engravings, but other than that I didn’t see any. This echoes some of the other posts about the lack of Indigenous languages we can see in Sydney. Other than a few place names around us such as Turramurra (meaning – big hill) and Karuah (rd) (possible meaning – native plum tree), we unfortuately don’t encounter these languages much in our everyday lives.

    • Thanks, Larissa! I share your sense that the presentation of Aboriginal rock art is often a missed opportunity – not only in terms of not having an Indigenous language there, but also because they neglect to educate, to enhance appreciation, and to foster reconciliation. The tone of National Parks signs at rock art in Killarney Heights is another example: instead of positive engagement, they address the visitor as a potential vandal and associate the site only with rules and fines. Not to mention that the signs are really ugly and, in themselves, might be considered to deface the site …
      Might language and culture contact on Aboriginal rock art signs be your presentation topic? 🙂

  • Blueberry Yogurt says:

    Since you have pointed out how Latin plays a role in Australia, I am much interested in the role of pure Korean words for city names. Korean is a language which has been under the huge influence of Chinese characters often called Hanja or Hanmun in Korea. Hanja is classical Chinese writing that is quite different from the currently used simplified Chinese characters. Hanja first arrived in Korea during the Three Kingdoms era (Shilla, Backjae and Koguryo) in the first century BC. China had a huge influence on the Korean peninsula in politics, economy, culture and so on. In history, Korea was considered as one of the subordinate states of China. Consequently, Hanja remained as the main writing system for writing Korean for over a millennium until the invention of Hangul (한글), the Korean alphabet.

    On the other hand, before the prevalence of Hanja, city names were originated from pure Korean words. These city names now are no longer official city names. For example, Daejeon (대전, 大田) in Sino-Korean, which is the term that refers to Korean words that have Chinese origin, used to be Hanbat (한밭) meaning a large field in pure Korean. And, Incheon (인천, 仁川) was originally called Michuhol (미추홀) which means water and large prairie. Although they are not used as city names, there is a university named after Hanbat in Daejeon and an annual music festival called Michuhol music festival in Incheon.
    Since Korea was invaded so many times and even colonized, now Koreans have much recognized the importance to rediscover the true meaning and the beauty of pure Korean words.

    • Thank you for these fascinating examples! Seems like there are 2 potential presentation topics in there – “Chinese in Korea” or “Language purification movements in Korea” – which one will you choose? 🙂

  • Dilys says:

    I live in District 6, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. This area, along with Districts 5 and 11, is predominantly inhabited by Chinese communities who often communicate in Cantonese. This language has also influenced me due to my frequent interactions with Chinese people. My neighborhood was filled with Chinese restaurants, where I noticed the unique ways of addressing salesgirl as 姐姐 (chè ché) and saleswoman as 阿姨 (a día), When some of my friends, who are unfamiliar with Chinese customs, heard me use these terms, they also adopted them too. The Chinese way of addressing each other, often involving adding “A” before a name, became familiar.

    Cantonese influence is evidently seen not only in interactions but also in cuisine. Some words like 白小 (baak6 siu2) for “bạc xỉu,” a mild coffee, 点心 (dim sam) for “dim sum” or “điểm tâm”, a Cantonese brunch, some dishes of “dim sum” are 蝦餃 (haa gaau) for “há cảo”, 烧卖 (sīu-máai) for “xíu mại” have been integrated into Vietnamese culinary. It illustrates that local languages such as Cantonese still exist in diversity in Vietnamese and people continue to preserve and develop this intertwining.

    • Thanks, Dilys! Maybe you could consider “Cantonese in District 6 (or HCMC or even Vietnam more broadly) for your presentation topic?

    • Thuybebong says:

      Your comment really inspired me to think about how much and deeply some Chinese vocabulary has entered and even formed Vietnamese vocabulary relating to food and restaurants.
      My city, Hai Phong, is noticeably famous for “Chè sủi dìn”, which always warmed me up during cold evening wandering around the city for sightseeing with my husband. I often spent hours waiting outside the most popular “sủi dìn” food stall for two little hot sweet cups of the miraculous drink.
      I would forever think that my favorite drink is Vietnamese if I did not read your comment. “Sủi dìn” actually sounds a little bit Cantonese. I have just done some Google search, and 湯圓 (tāngyuán) is its original Chinese name.
      It is miraculous that the food that symbolizes my best memories about my hometown in Viet Nam is actually from our neighboring country. Chances are the process of language contact (and food contact) that results in “sủi dìn” has taken place for so long and it has become a too familiar a part of the culture for me to even notice the Cantonese traces without reading your comment.

  • Thi Thu Ha Pham says:

    Thank you for such an interesting article. Unfortunately, I have just been in Australia for about two months and have not had much exposure to the Indigenous language here. However, I want to share with you about a suburb in Sydney called Cabramatta, where many Vietnamese are currently residing. You will immediately realize that it is a true cultural hub for Vietnamese when you arrive in Cabramatta because Vietnamese posters, billboards, and businesses are ubiquitous. Some restaurants and milk tea stores even have a notice in front of their store written Chúng tôi nói tiếng Việt which means We speak Vietnamese. Thus, it brings a welcoming atmosphere and a sense of familiarity where Vietnamese Australians can confidently communicate and access services and amenities in their native language. Hence, I think it’s also a true example of how language and culture can shape a space and make it distinctly representative of a particular group like the Vietnamese community.

  • Carla says:

    Since I arrived recently in Australia, I haven’t had many encounters with indigenous languages.
    On the streets, I only observed the Aboriginal flag and activism due to the Australian indigenous voice referendum.The ones I had were mostly connected to the Macquarie University or the Australian Museum.
    In the units, on Echo and Ilearn, indigenous live is addressed. Today I observed an appreciation plaque at the University Library.
    It starts with warami (hello/where are you from?). The traditional custodians of the ngurra (land) and badu (water) are acknowledged. It explains that the land on which we stand belongs to the Dharug Nation. Their contribution to our lives and the value of the continuing relations is addressed. The farewell Budyari naawunya mittigar (good to see you, friend), is only expressed in the respective language.
    The pronunciation and the words themselves are explained below, probably to not disturb the message and to emphasise the indigenous culture. Latter is reinforced by the picture of a Burrumering, an indigenous guardian spirit, which represents leadership, strength and protection. These words are written in huge capital letters and therefore stress (unconsciously) the English language.
    Acknowlegements are linked to the Walang Muru program. Which means ‘follow your path’ (in Dharug) and refers to an indigenous program.

    • Great observations – it’s only been a year that our campus has been renamed Wallumattagal Campus:

      • Carla says:

        Thanks Dr. Piller for sharing this video and giving me further insights about the use of language on our Campus and its history! As we learned in class, the naming of objects and places, like in this case, can have significant effects on these same places and the perception of its people!

    • Larissa says:

      Thanks for pointing this out, Carla. I’ll definitely be more aware of signs and plaques at the uni now 🙂

  • Undraa says:

    We hardly encounter any signs and labels associated with Indigenous language as NSW is the place where the lowest number of Aboriginal and Torres Islander language speakers live in.

    According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, at present, approximately 150 Indigenous languages are spoken in Australia. However, 78 of them do not have any speakers between the age of 0-14. Therefore, I wonder whether Indigenous langauges are taught in Australian high school or not and have done a little research on the internet.

    Department of Education claims that virtually 10,000 students are learning Indigenous languages across 68 schools in 2023. 24 langauges which are unique to Australia were taught depending on the area and suburb. I have also heard that the government supports the Indigenous people in many ways. For instance, billions of AUD was spent for their Medicare, social security, education including childcare and university as well as the government encourages all the institutions to collaborate with the Indigenous people.

    https://www.education.wa.edu.au/aboriginal-languages

  • lily says:

    After reading this article, I think about China, actually, I never pay attention to the indigenous language before. However, there are many Indigenous languages spoken in China by various ethnic groups, and I want to get some information about this area by looking many websites. I found almost every ethnic group have their own indigenous language. These languages have cultural and historical significance and often reflect the connection between these groups and particular spaces.
    For instance, in Tibet, most of local people can speak Tibet language (especially the old people), and this indigenous language is intricately tied to the landscape and religious practices. Although the Chinese government attaches great importance to the use and preservation of the Tibetan language, the popularity of Mandarin is still pushing more and more young people to give up learning Tibet language. The Tibet language maybe like the Australia indigenous language in the future, some words maybe will change, but I think language change is a process that history must go through.

  • Nurunnahar says:

    Thank you for sharing an interesting article with us. I think like many other countries, in Bangladesh language also works as a strong indicator of space ownership. There are different names, signs and cultural activities that actually identifies different areas for specific groups. In Bangladesh we have “Lalbagh Fort” ( also known as Lalbagh Kella) located in Dhaka, which was constructed during the Mughal period in the 17th century by Prince Muhammad Azam, the third son of Emperor Aurangzeb. Its historical significance represents remarkable aspect of Mughal heritage in Bangladesh, as Mughals ruled here and introduced Persian language to Bengali culture and I think Lalbagh Fort ( Lalbagh Kella) still connects modern day Bangla to its Mughal heritage which is very fascinating.

    • Thanks, Nurunnahar! Does Lalbagh Fort (or other buildings from the era) still contain Persian inscriptions? Or are any of the city’s – present and historical – languages other than Bangla and English visible on signage in Dhaka?

      • Nurunnahar says:

        Lalbagh Fort has some inscriptions in Persian language and those inscriptions actually indicates the information about the construction of the building as well as the ruler who constructed the building and I think it has some poetic verses too which is written in Persian language. These inscriptions uphold the historical significance of the place.

  • Durian says:

    Thank you, I appreciate the article!

    The article discusses the concept of pictures, logos, and images that hold significance, prompting individuals to contemplate their sense of belonging and historical context in Australia. Something similar can be also observed in South Korea. While reading, it occurred to me that both locations possess their own narratives and significant historical elements.

    In South Korea, there are also communities that inhabited the region earlier, and they possess their unique attributes. Just as we can observe in Australia, symbols, drawings, paintings, and words can be employed to convey meaningful concepts and narratives. In South Korea, symbols serve as a means to convey their history and deeply held beliefs.
    In certain instances, individuals in South Korea use languages other than their native tongue, like English, to express contemporary concepts. For instance, a word like “incentive” remains the same. The essay introduces the use of Latin, an ancient language that imparts a sense of distinctiveness. Similarly, the past holds significance in South Korea, particularly in remembering historical events such as the Korean War and others.

    The manner in which individuals establish a sense of belonging and take ownership of their historical narrative holds considerable importance in South Korea as well. This echoes the situation in Australia, where a blend of historical elements and modern influences requires thoughtful consideration. Despite the geographical disparity, both regions share a commonality in valuing their unique stories and concepts. I believe it’s crucial to recognize this preciously and continue fostering such perspectives.

    • Thanks, Durian! Are their any signs in minority languages in S Korea that reflect the presence of groups other than Koreans – indigenous or migrant – in public spaces?

  • Aaron says:

    In Michigan where I grew up, indigenous languages like Ojibwe and Potawatomi are evident in place names all over the state and all across America. The state’s name itself comes from “Mishigami,” meaning “great lake,” while “Kalamazoo,” derived from the Potawatomi word for “boiling pot,” and “Muskegon,” meaning “swamp” or “marsh,” are other examples.

    These names echo the heritage of native tribes, but sadly, the languages are overshadowed by English except in certain tribal lands and their casinos.

    My ancestral connection to the Cherokee Nation through my great-grandmother’s lineage offers a personal perspective on this interplay. The presence of tribal casinos managed by tribes like the Potawatomi highlights the blending of economic autonomy with a commitment to recognizing and embracing indigenous languages and culture, beyond the familiar place names and commercial venues.

    While Michigan’s indigenous place names and tribal endeavors are indeed noteworthy, they represent just the beginning of a journey toward deeper connections with these languages. The state might consider ways to incorporate indigenous languages into daily life, acknowledging their role in shaping our culture, identity, and history.

    Inspired by Australia’s steps toward embracing indigenous peoples and practices, Michigan could explore similar paths. By valuing the richness of indigenous languages and their multifaceted roles, we may find avenues to nurture and honor them.

    This reflection on Michigan’s linguistic landscape isn’t just about preservation; I think it’s about connection and understanding. Embracing these aspects of our heritage can lead to a more inclusive and enriched community, resonating with the significance of my own ancestral Cherokee ties and the broader tapestry of our shared human story. In a time when divisions seem rampant, maybe a renewed appreciation for our diverse linguistic roots could help unite us, fostering a greater sense of community and connection. It’s a gentle reminder of our common humanity and a shared commitment to cherishing the beauty of our cultural heritage.

  • Natalie says:

    Since Indigenous Australian languages don’t hold official status in Australia, it’s rare that I encounter them. One domain where I do see Aboriginal language though is at Macquarie University, where efforts are consistently made to incorporate Indigenous awareness into everyday life.

    The MQ North Ryde campus was recently renamed the Wallumattagal campus, in an effort to recognise the traditional owners of our university’s land. This name change was significant, as it symbolised a shift in mindset and in power: rather than erasing the often-ignored history of our campus, the university chose to recognise its original inhabitants and reinstate their power and importance through the use of an Indigenous name.

    At MQ, we are also exposed to the Indigenous language of this region, Dharug, in the Welcome to Country videos/presentations that are held before all events, and sometimes during lessons. In pre-colonial Australian Aboriginal culture, it was customary to say a Welcome to Country whenever you crossed into a different tribe’s region; thus, our acknowledgement of the traditional owners is done out of respect to this protocol, and to act as a regular reminder of Australia’s history.

  • benjaminfox says:

    I come from a part of Australia where Indigenous place names are abundant: Calala, Goonoo Goonoo, Attunga, and Daruka are all townlets in the Tamworth regional area. Tamworth is also one of the few LGAs in NSW where an indigenous language, Gamilaraay, is in the top 5 languages spoken in the area. So after reading your article, I was excited to find a region teaming with an indigenous language used in the community and on signage. I did not. Sure – there are instances of Gamilaraay. The Tamworth Hospital has signage saying “welcome” in Gamilaraay (linked below). A few walking trails describe the names of the animals, such as the local names for flying foxes and birds – but the language isn’t present in public spaces to any impressive extent that someone can’t find here in Sydney. However, Tamworth is one of the few regions where, despite English being the majority spoken language, there exists an “indigenous language nest”. Australian language nests are worth looking into and are controversial for being ineffective. Nevertheless, they aim to teach young children the local language, giving room for hope.

    https://www.flickr.com/photos/43728157@N03/20479823648

    • Thanks, Benjamin, for sharing insights on the Tamworth area and particularly the photo with the bilingual welcome sign! I’d be interested to read more about the language nest school in Tamworth – do you know whether any research has been published about it?
      I was surprised to hear that Gamilaraay is among the top 5 languages spoken at home in the area and so looked it up. According to the 2021 Census, the top-5 languages other than English in Tamworth Regional are Mandarin, Vietnamese, Tagalog, Punjabi, and Nepali (in this order). The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Profile for Tamworth Regional states that 8,032/163,070 (5%) residents identify as Indigenous; of these 188 (=2.3% of Indigenous; 0.1% of all residents) report speaking an Indigenous language at home – only 6 of these report not speaking English or not all – seems like “Gamilaraay in Tamworth” might make a fascinating topic for your presentation 🙂

      • benjaminfox says:

        Thanks for the correction, Ingrid. You’re, right, Gamilaraay is not in the top 5 languages in Tamworth, but it is definitely one of the healthiest Australian languages in NSW – especially in places like Gunnedah, Moree, and the Liverpool plains (where it is actually in the top 5 languages spoken languages besides English). Definitely inspired me to look into this for projects.

    • Natalie says:

      Hi Ben, I really enjoyed reading your post. I was surprised to hear that your experience with indigenous languages is so different from mine, and yet we live in the same state! It’s great to hear that there are some language revitalisation efforts happening in Tamworth. Did you ever get the chance to learn any Gamilaraay at school? I remember studying Murrinhpatha with Joe a few semesters ago and I was astounded by how grammatically complex it was! I wonder if Gamilaraay would be difficult to learn too…

      • benjaminfox says:

        I actually remember a time in primary school when we had the opportunity to learn Gamilaraay by volunteering for a class every Friday. I’ll admit that I was pretty unmotivated to learn it during lunch as a year 5 student, but I did attend a few classes. Joe Blythe touched on the Gamilaraay language nests and language teaching in Australia, and he talks about how ineffectual they’ve been so far. Unlike language nests in New Zealand, which Joe argues are better for revitalization, a lot of classes in Australia teach little more than a handful of nouns and greetings.

        • Undraa says:

          Ben and Natalie, Thank you so much for your fascinating comments.
          I was just wondering if Indigenous langauges are taught in Australian high school as compulsory subject or not. After reading your comments about your experiences with learning Indigenous languages, it made me think of the future of those languages again. if those langauges are taught as an elective subject for just one semester or few months and students are ended up learning just greetings and few words, the number of young generations who speak Indigenous languages will probably decline significantly and it might increase the risk of extinction.

  • Thuybebong says:

    I have been intrigued by a place named Walanga Muru since the first time I arrived at Macquarie University. It is located at 6 First Walk, just a few steps away from the Department of Linguistics and the library.
    Curiosity leads me to do some Google search about the name. It actually means “follow your path” in a Darug language, as stated in our university website. Darug (or Dharug, Dharuk, Daruk) and Eora are, according to linguists, two dialects of the language that was spoken by the indigenous people in the greater Sydney areas. “Koala” and “wombat” are supposed to be borrowed from this language.
    In accordance with the meaning of its name, Walanga Muru is to support the indigenous students and staff at Macquarie university by providing them with recreation, study spaces and communicative events.

  • Luna says:

    Thank you, Ingrid, for bringing up this interesting topic. It reminds me of the Indigenous languages in my home country, Thailand. Let me take you back a long time ago to the region where I was born and raised, the northeastern part of Thailand, also known as the Isaan section. This area used to belong to Laos before it was conquered by the Siamese (Thai) people. In the Isaan region, we still speak Laos, and the Indigenous languages are represented in the names of the provinces. For example, “Chaiyaphum Province” is referred to as “Saiyapoom” in Laos. This connection to the past through language continues to shape our local identity and culture.

  • Hasan says:

    I guess every language has an effect on another language. As a former colony of England, we have many words that are straight borrowed from English. Not only that, but Bangla also has words from Persian, Sanskrit, Arabic, and Turkish. Bangla has approximately 75000 individual words, 20% of which are from another language. All of them come through colonialization. First, the Mughals ruled here, they introduce Persian words, Arab traders introduce Arabic words and English colonizers gave some English words. Although nowadays people try to use fewer English words, it has become a part and parcel of the Bangla language, it cannot be substituted with another word. Not only words but many traditions also get mixed up with Bangla culture. All these traditions become a possession of our culture.

    • Thanks, Hasan! You are right that language and culture mixing has been the norm throughout history; at the same time, each context is different and the linguistic and cultural experience of a settler colony like Australia is not easily comparable to that of an extraction colony like the subcontinent …

  • Hana says:

    I really enjoyed reading this topic. In Korea, of course, there are quite a few terms that reflect a unique indigenous culture or historical background. In particular, in Korea, many foreign words came from Japan due to the historical domination of Japan. The culture of shouting “attention, salute” to the teacher at the beginning of school classes is also a military culture that means loyalty to the Japanese king and is a trace of the Japanese colonial rule. For this reason, in recent education fields, it is recommended to change to a more natural greeting such as ‘Hello’.

  • R says:

    Thank you for sharing this interesting topic it has given me more new information about Australia’s history. It reminds me of the story in my country about language. In the past, there were many Chinese immigrants to Thailand during World War II and my ancestors were one of them too. There are many words in Thai that are borrowed from the Chinese language or Teochew dialect (the language that is spoken by the Teochew people in the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong China) and some are pronounced similarly, for example, 四 (Sì) in Thai language we pronounce as สี่ (Si) which means four and the word 粿条 ( Guǒ tiáo) in Thai language we pronounce as ก๋วยเตี๊ยว (Guay Tiao) which means noodles.

  • Dass says:

    In my primary classes, I noticed that in Biology, Latin language is used for scientific names of majority of things. Then studied about it and I came across about it they were invented because new words were needed to name newly described structures. For hundreds of years they had to be in Latin because books about biology and medicine were written in Latin (with a few entries in Greek), which was the international language of science. For example, the scientific name of human is Homo sapiens and Mangifera indica also known as mango. Scientific names are always italicized. When hand-writing text, you can underline them instead, but there is no excuse not to italicize when using a word processor.
    How many parts of of scientific names and how they are used? There are two parts of a scientific name are the genus and the species. The genus is always capitalized. The species is never capitalized.

  • Dass says:

    A language is a system of communication which includes of a set of sounds and written symbols which are used by the people of a particular nation for talking or writing.
    In this World there are 71,000 languages and Punjabi is one of them. Panjabi is an Indo-Aryan language. It is natively spoken by the Punjabi people in the Punjab region of Pakistan and India.The word Punjabi has been derived from the word Panjab, which means ‘Land of the Five Rivers’. Which are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas.
    There are 41 letters, 10 vowels accents, Bindi, Tippi, Adhak and Conjust consonants in Punjabi language. Punjabi developed from Prakrit languages and later Apabhraṃśa from 600 BCE. The culture of Punjab is the richest culture in the India as well as world. Punjabi songs are full of melody and energy. The famous dances of Punjab are bhangra, giddha, kikli and sammi. Historically, the indigenous Punjabi people were a heterogeneous group and were subdivided into a number of clans called biradari which means brotherhood with each person bound to a clan.

  • Thank you, Jhonny, for this important reminder! Maybe the logocentrism and privileging of visual symbols in our society is in itself colonial? And part of the larger devalorisation of indigenous/non-Western practices, including dance?

    • Jhonny says:

      Absolutely! It constitutes a way of perpetuating the concept of “Positional Superiority”, as well as a vehicle to keep these communities barred from scenarios where their thoughts and world visions are valuable and have a say in world academics and administration.

      Linda Tihiwai Smith in her work Decolonizing Methodologies, quoted the filmmaker Merata Mita, who accurately stated:
      “We have a history of people putting Māori under a microscope in the same way a scientist looks at an insect. The ones doing the looking are giving themselves the power to define.”
      These words still prevail not only for Māori but also for thousands of communities around the globe.

  • Thanks, Chloe! I bet that once you start paying attention to the signs around you, you won’t be able to stop. Tell us what you see 😊

  • Jhonny says:

    In our societies, there are still thousands of embedded symbols and behaviors portraying colonialism, denial, and superiority against minorities and historically diminished communities. As it was wisely done in this article, it is necessary to make these symbols visible, create social awareness and provide linguistic and cultural insights regarding their impact.

    Contrastingly, I would like to refer to two scenarios in which dance has become a language of emancipation and a means of cultural awareness. During a weekend Sydneysider walk, I visited the Indigenous Science Experience in Redfern. There, I had the chance to see Rayma Johnson, a descendant of the Wiradjuri Nation and a choreographer who has strived to teach the connections between nature, dance, and community.

    Seeing Rayma’s art and the way it helped her to heal from her daughter’s early departure, made me think of the people from San Basilio de Palenque, which was the first settlement in the Americas to achieve freedom and is home of the only Spanish-based Creole in Latin America. Besides dancing Lumbalú during funerals, Palenqueros have a vast cultural tradition that keeps them connected to their African inheritance and reminds us about the importance of raising our voices against oppressive symbols and actions.

    • Brownie says:

      Thank you Jhonny and your video. I love the ways how the people in Palenque use to remind everyone and the young generation about the history such as using drum rhythms. Whenever I hear traditional drums from an other country, I wonder why the people there have different rhythms in playing drums and what is the meaning. Secondly, I was also curious about the typical braids, I thought that they are just the traditional custom, but now, I know that it has the meanings about the routes of freedom. It is necessary to educate children and present about those knowledge to many people around the world as the way to fight again wars, inequality or racial discrimination. Anyway, I appreciate what and how Palenque do to deliver their message.

  • Jenisha says:

    Thank you so much Ingrid for letting us know about aboriginal of Australia and indigenous languages used here. I was always interested about Latin language as since our early school we were taught it as a dead language but had contributed so much for the formation of English languages.
    There is a quote that say pictures speak louder than words but I have not thought a simple logo can be so meaningful and interesting. Talking about Nepali people specially people of my community who draw different kinds of drawing to communicate with people as a sign of god and worship it . We are culturally rich and specially in Festivals the painting of gods and godess are used to show their lifestyle and their emotion .

    • Thank you, Jenisha! The images of gods sound fascinating – can you recommend a website where we can see some of those images and learn more about them?

    • Tannie Tran says:

      Jenisha’s comment on the ancient Nepali arts reminds me of Joan Miro’s quote: “I try to apply colors like words that shape poems, like notes that shape music.”
      It also made me curious, which led to interesting research about the traditional Mathila painting (or Madhubani art)
      Mathila painting is one of many renowned Indian art forms. It is called Mithila or Madhubani art as it is practiced in Bihar and the Mithila region of Nepal. Often featuring intricate geometric designs, these paintings are known to depict the ritual content of particular occasions, such as festivals and religious ceremonies. The colors used in Madhubani paintings are usually derived from plants and other natural sources. These colors are often pale and pigments such as lamp black and ocher are used to create black and brown respectively. Instead of modern brushes, objects such as twigs, matches, and even fingers are used to create paintings.
      Nowadays, Madhubani art is an important part of the life of in Bihar. The women who practice this art form use it as a way to create awareness on social issues and to empower women.
      One of my favourite Mathila paintings is “the Ten Mahavidyas, Shiva and Sakti”, which is very lively, colourful and aesthetic.
      (Here is the link to the painting: https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12027/ten-mahavidyas-shiva-and-sakti-madhubani-painting/ )

  • Tannie Tran says:

    Thanks for the interesting topic, Ingrid.
    I used to believe that the Southward Movement of the Nguyen Lords and the Nguyen Dynasty from the 15th to the 19th century was one of the greatest contributions to the formation of our nation. Then as I worked as a teacher in Phan Rang – Thap Cham city and had a chance to learn more about the Cham’s history, the truth is not so appealing. After the “invasion” of Vietnamese over centuries from the 14th to the 19th century, only 28,000 Chams remained, as the majority of their population were killed or assimilated by the Viet. Even the remainders were forced to live under the Vietnamese political and economic domination. Fortunately, they were able to retain their religious beliefs and matrilineal kinship patterns. Nowadays, the Cham’s population in Viet Nam is around 162,000 (which is 0.19% of Vietnamese population). Although their language is still passed from generations to generations, under the pressure of international integration and the demand of foreign language efficiency, young Cham learners tend to pay more attention to Vietnamese and English. It leads to a reality that the number of Chams that can read and write their own language has been reduced drastically.

    • Jhonny says:

      Hi Tannie Tran! Thanks a lot for your contribution. It made me reflect upon the Cham Community not only about their struggle during the Nguyen Dynasty, but also throughout the conflict that took place in Cambodia and Vietnam during the second half of the 20th century. It demonstrated how the lack of knowledge regarding minorities that populate our own countries leads to colonial denial and diminishing patterns.
      Besides, I was able to establish connections with communities in my own country (Colombia), whose members not only faced genocide, but nowadays thrive on Peripheral Languages maintenance and learning what, in de Swaan’s Global Language System, is a Super Central Language (Spanish) and the Hyper Central Language (English).

    • Bob says:

      Hi Tannie,

      Thank you for your insightful comment on the consequences of the Vietnamese southward expansion by the Nguyen dynasty. It’s a shame that we were only taught how the Nguyen dynasty’s southern migration was a major victory for the country, and how this expansion turned the country into what it is now. This would be a different story if it was told from the Cham people’s perspective.

      I recently found out that the name Sài Gòn has some interesting origins. Originally known as Prey Nôkôr in the Khmer language, by the 17th century, the overwhelming number of Vietnamese settlers slowly Vietnamized the city and the surrounding region, which led to the city being officially named Sài Gòn. However, there is much debate about the etymology of ‘Sài Gòn’. The most common, and plausible hypothesis is that ‘Sài Gòn’ is a Chinese loanword (柴, pronounced chái, meaning firewood/stick; and 棍, pronounced gùn, meaning pole/bole, or cotton). This name may have originated from the dense cotton trees that the Khmer people planted around Prey Nôkôr.

      Other etymological sources for the name Sài Gòn include Cantonese, Thai, and Khmer, with the Khmer origin being the least likely candidate. However, another hypothesis is that the name Sài Gòn has Cham origins. I’m not too sure about this since etymology is not my specialty but according to what I read, the Khmer origin was considered to be unlikely as the onset of “Prey” is too complex compared the simple onset of “Sài”. But if we take the name directly from Cham (Bai Gaur) to Vietnamese without going through the Khmer intermediary stage, this distinction would be eliminated. Further research into this is being conducted but it’s very interesting to read about, since this seems to be a great example of language contact between settlers and the local populations.

      https://thereaderwiki.com/en/Names_of_Ho_Chi_Minh_City

      • Thanks, Bob, for this detailed and fascinating account. Place name etymology often involves a bit of speculation and we might never find out exactly but maybe that makes it so intriguing ☺️

  • KATE says:

    Thank you for the exciting topic. Reading this article, I couldn’t help but think about the history of our country. Since Korea has been under the rule of Japan for more than 30 years, it has been greatly influenced by Japan in terms of culture, life, and language. For example, we often use loanwords, borrowing from Japan. 노가다[nogada] is from どかた[dokata], which mean hard-working or hard-worker. However, in our country, we try to refrain from using such foreign words. This is because we believe that we have not escaped the remnants of Japan.

    • Thanks, Kate! A couple of students have commented on the Japanese influence on Korean, and I’m curious to hear about other influences. Chinese? English? Are they felt less?

      • KATE says:

        Our country has never been ruled by China, so there are few Chinese loanwords. In the case of English, considering that this is the global era, there are quite a few English loanwords as many as in other countries. What’s surprising is that North Korea never uses foreign words. They also use the same Korean language as ours, but they use all foreign words in pure Korean.

    • thao says:

      There are a few English borrowed words that I am aware of as a Vietnamese Australian:

      Beefsteak – / biːf steɪk/: bít tết
      Sandwich – /ˈsæn.wɪtʃ/: bánh san quít
      Yoghurt – /ˈjoʊ.ɡɚt/: ya ua ( sữa chua)
      Biscuit – /ˈbɪs.kɪt/: bánh quy
      Beer – /bɪr/: bia
      Cream – /kriːm/: kem
      Salad – /ˈsæl.əd/: xà lách/xa lát
      Coffee – /ˈkɑː.fi/: cà phê
      Caffeine – /ˈkæf.iːn/: ca – phê – in
      Soda – /ˈsoʊ.də/: sô – đa

      However, new words have been emerging and only those Vietnamese living in Australia who are still engaged in the culture of Vietnam would be aware of. I don’t watch or follow media in Vietnam but only through hearing others’ usage that I have become aware of these new borrowed terms. One such term is “si tin” borrowed from “style” meaning a person has style. Another term I was shocked to learn recently is “coo te”. I looked a little stunned when I first heard it, not understanding the meaning, until I was told it was from the word “cute”. The word may be borrowed but it is pronounced through the local language. There is a word for “cute” in Vietnamese but I wonder about the reason for using the borrowed term.

      • Thanks, Thao! That’s so interesting. I also sometimes have such surprises with new words in German, often loan words from English that are used in unexpected ways.
        Do you think the spread of “cute” might be related to TikTok (or similar video sharing platforms) and influencers there?

  • Chloe says:

    This article is very interesting. As this was my first exposure to Australian culture I didn’t have a great understanding of the Aboriginal and Indigenous people of Australia. But this article helped me to understand a little bit. I don’t know if I’m right, but through this article I feel that there are some cultural similarities between China, Japan and Korea. For example, the kanji in Japanese comes from China, and some words in Korean and Japanese can be very similar. I guess it’s for historical reasons. And the fact that the Latino and Australian identity was found in the bus shelter logo was quite surprising to me. Since I never paid attention to this, I think I’ll be more conscious of the logos around me in the future.

  • Quynh says:

    Thank you for this writing that leads us – the next generation to contemplate the influence of colonization on the shape of our national identity.

    In the dynasty era, Vietnam had two systems of writing, including Chu-Han – classical Chinese characters adapted to Vietnamese pronunciation and Chu-Nom – a logographic writing system created by Vietnamese scholars. The latter was extremely complex as it was made up of modified Chinese characters. In the early 17th century, Chu-quoc-ngu – a systematic spelling for Vietnamese based on the Latin alphabet with some additional tone signs was introduced to facilitate French evangelising over the country. This tactic was used as a weapon to separate Vietnamese people from their traditions and paved the way for spreading French civilization.

    Nowadays, this modified Roman alphabet with accents and tones of Vietnamese is the currently-used script by about 86% of the country’s population and many large communities in other countries.
    This instant poses a question to me: What did Vietnamese nationalists think about this new writing system? Did they voice against its serving script for mass education?

    At that time, due to its religious propaganda purpose, the system was not welcomed by the majority of Vietnamese. However, Vietnamese intellectuals all agreed that this presented a rapid route to literacy and facilitated knowledge sharing, and they chose it to be the national language in the early 20th century. The French could not anticipate that this alphabet system provided Vietnamese patriots with skills and tools which fuel their fights for independence.

    It is true that this script has a major role in shaping the country’s identity. It has become an integral part of Vietnamese cultures, traditions and customs that no one thinks of its as the legacy of colonialism.

    • Thank you, Quynh, for posing these fascinating questions! I don’t have any answers re Vietnamese – that will have to. e your research project – but there is a great book examining similar questions for Chinese, which almost changed its script, too. The book is called Chinese Grammatoloy, by Yurou Zhong: http://cup.columbia.edu/book/chinese-grammatology/9780231192637

    • Ella says:

      Hi Quynh,
      I enjoyed your comment on this article.

      What the Vietnamese experienced with the complex classical Chinese character seems similar to Korea’s situation before the creation of our own written character, Hangul.

      Back in history, Korea used Chinese characters for ages, until King Sejong created Hangul. One of the main reasons he created Hangul is that the Chinese characters were too difficult for ordinary people to learn and communicate with each other. At that time, only intellectuals were able to receive education and learn Chinese characters, thus most of them were against the creation and distribution of Hangul. Despite strong opposition from intellectuals, King Sejong pushed ahead with the distribution of Hangul. He argued that using our own character is highly necessary, because Korean is completely different from Chinese. Hangul is much easier to learn than complex Chinese characters, so ordinary people could easily use them for daily uses. Besides, with the distribution of Hangul, more and more books and documents were written in Hangul, contributing to the development of Korean culture.

    • XM says:

      Hi Quynh, thanks for explaining the history of Vietnamese and letting me know more about its relationship with Chinese. Although Canton province and Vietnam are just next to each other, their languages belong to different language families (Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan). As a Cantonese speaker, I have also found some similarities between Cantonese and Vietnamese. It has always been my interest to find out the reason why it sometimes sound like Cantonese. It is discovered that we share a number of vocabulary through a video of phonological comparisons. From the range of vocabulary, I can see that it covers many areas, so there must be some deep historical links between our cultures.

      • Thanks, XM! The intensive language and culture contact in the Chinese-Vietnamese borderlands has been described as “language corridor”. You might like this article:
        David, Holm. (2020). The language corridor revisited: Vernacular scripts and migration pathways. Journal of Chinese Writing Systems, 4(2), 71-86. doi:10.1177/2513850220919810 (available through the MQ library)
        Abstract: Over two decades ago, Jerold Edmondson and Li Jinfang conducted linguistic fieldwork in the China–Vietnam borderlands, and posited the existence of a migration corridor running between Guizhou province and the northern provinces of Vietnam, passing through the eastern part of Yunnan. This hypothesis was based on linguistic evidence, so they called it the language corridor, and looked at the correspondences between the speech of isolated communities in northern Vietnam and speech varieties in Guizhou, Guangxi and Yunnan. Historic migrations of populations, large and small, bring with them other traces of their original homelands. In the case of the Tai-speaking peoples of the China–Vietnam area, the evidence includes local varieties of vernacular character scripts based on Chinese. This article will present new information based on survey evidence, and propose a new enhancement of established methods in historical anthropology and historical linguistics.

    • Ying says:

      Hi Quynh,
      Thank you for letting me know the history of the Vietnamese language. Many people think that Vietnamese and Chinese have many similarities. Language is a constant development and integration. Vietnamese and Chinese are not the same language family, but Vietnamese has a lot of Chinese loan words. The Chinese loanwords in Vietnamese are very systematic. There are loanwords in ancient Chinese, middle ancient Chinese and modern Chinese. Many phonetic “fossils” are preserved, which is of great significance for the construction of ancient Chinese and primitive Chinese.

    • 烏 (からす) says:

      Hi Quynh, thanks for your comment on Vietnamese! Vietnam is interesting to me for so many reasons… there are so many opposing forces with differing agendas in the colonial era: traditional nationalists and progressive nationalists, revolutionaries and colonizers, and language is at the center of it all. It’s also interesting to me that Cambodia and Laos, despite also being French imperial possessions under the umbrella of “Indochina”, managed to preserve their own writing systems, rather than adapting another script (although I suppose this may also be the result of the historical influence of Chinese in Vietnam). Funny though that the European missionaries ended up giving Vietnam such a powerful weapon in asserting its own cultural identity!

      Lastly, I just wanted to share this world map of writing systems (obviously it’s a bit oversimplified, especially in diglossic societies with concurrent use of multiple scripts, but still neat):

      https://www.worldstandards.eu/wp-content/uploads/alphabets-spread-around-the-world.jpg

  • Logan says:

    Thank you for sharing a fantastic article with deep insights and observations. I was so surprised that Ku-ring-gai is unrelated to the original inhabitants, and there is even a report that pre-colonial indigenous people might have made the term.
    I searched the Ku-Ring-Gai area on the map and found that the West Pymble I live in now also belongs to this area.
    Since I inspected more than 15 houses last month, I am familiar with the name of the suburbs of Sydney. I searched the terms Killara, Wahroonga, and Turramurra, doubting that those might be another case. Fortunately, all seemed to come from an Aboriginal word.
    Killara means “permanent or always there,” and Wahroonga means “our home.” Turramurra means either “high hill, big hill, high place, or small watercourse.”

  • Thank you, Mandu, for this informative comment about women’s names. It’s intriguing that the “ja,子” explanation is adding insult to injury by imputing a misogynist motive to parents…

  • Mandu says:

    Thanks for the article. It was interesting that we can read history involved through the language. I’d like to share some of Korean history related to language as well.
    I wondered why many Korean women’s names end with 자(ja,子). This letter also means a son in Chinese characters. For this reason, some people believe that parents used to put this letter at the end of their daughter’s name, hoping their next child will be a son.
    But it is the byproduct of Japanese rule. We were under Japanese rule for about 36 years from 1910 to 1945. In the 1920s, teaching or learning Korean was officially forbidden in schools. And they even forced us to change our names in Japanese. Therefore, many of Japanese names were adopted as Korean women’s new names such as ‘Hanako’(花子) to ‘화자’(Hwaja), ‘Mitsuko’(光子) to ‘광자’(Gwangja)’, ‘Junko’(順子) to 순자(unja)’ and ‘Eiko’(榮子) to 영자(Youngja).
    It is surprising how many people still think these names are traditional Korean names and how the history of invasion and colonization is deeply permeated into language.

    • Ste says:

      안녕 Mandu, it is interesting to read your comment concerning the word “자(ja)” in Korean! I am from China, and I have discovered that the Chinese and Korean cultures share significant similarities and differences.

      We also have the word “자(ja)” in Chinese, which is pronounced and characterised as “子(zi)”. However, having a slight difference from Korean, the word “zi” has become so diverse along the histroy. It was originally used to refer to “baby”, and it has later been extended to include other meanings such as “child” (孩子), “sons and daughters” (子女), “seed” (种子), “quote by Confucius” (子曰), and “the time between 11 p.m. and 1 a.m.” (子时). Throughout the history of the Chinese language, the word “zi” in Chinese has not only been semantically diverse but also functionally complex, because it can serve as a noun, adjective, adverb, pronoun, auxiliary and even as a verb in ancient Chinese. But as you can see, the word never stands alone, and it must be accompanied by an additional word to convey meaning. I think this grammatical rule is similar to or the same as the Korean language, as you also need to say 남자 (여자) to mean the boy (the girl). Am I correct?

      Another noteworthy aspect of your comment that I found intriguing is the issue of gender preference in our elder generations, in which parents consider boys to be more valuable than girls. Such gender bias also exists in some regions of China, typically in rural or underdeveloped areas. However, the practice of putting “子” (zi) in the name of daughters has not yet been identified here in China. What a Chinese parent might do is to visit a temple and pray for a son.

      • Mandu says:

        Thanks for your comment. Yes, Ja is also used to refer to a boy (男子, namja) and a girl (女子 Yeoja). It is also surprising to me that boy preference is not found in Chinese names considering that both countries prefer having a boy to a girl. To add more regarding naming a girl with a boy’s name, my mom’s name is Geum(錦) Nam(男), which means “gold boy”. And her sister’s name is Eun(銀) name(男), “silver boy”. Both of them are in their 60s now. It is just hilarious that old generations wanted their children to be boys so badly.

        • Thanks, Mandu, for sharing about your mum’s and aunt’s names. Were these names chosen before the babies were born? Or was the hope that a boy’s name would change their gender? 🤔

    • Abed says:

      Hello Mandu. Very interesting insight. The origin of names in many cultures can tell a lot about it. In Middle East children usually referred to their fathers then to their grandfathers and so on to the fourth grandfather which sometimes equals the last name in other cultures. Unlike some western cultures and some others, where there is only first and last name, people can choose their own names too. I have always wondered about the origin and the use of the middle names in western culture. I have been told by colleagues that the middle name sometimes could be the last name of the mother which make sense to me, but sometimes person could choose their own middle name too! Fascinating!

  • Thanks, Sinem! Your comment reminds me of my visit to Istanbul and the languages I encountered there: https://www.languageonthemove.com/erasing-diversity/

  • sinem emre says:

    That was such a great article to read! I’ve learnt so many new things about the Australian Aboriginals and the Indigenous people as I don’t know much of them.
    I can relate this to the Turkish culture which my family and I are from.
    During the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans had a significant change in their language up till today. For instance, during the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire in Turkey would speak Arabic along with the Turkmen language. Before, the Ottoman empire was so vast and owned many lands. Due to this, the now ‘Turkish’ linguistics and language has similar words to the Arabic dialect and almost the same spoken language as Turkmenistan. People in Turkiye can now understand the Turkmen and Azerbaijan dialogue. Additionally, in Turkiye today, some words are just pronounced identical to English American words. For example, for cake they pronounce it as /kek/. The English pronunciations are extracted from after the WWI when they were many British and French colonies living along Turkiye. During WWI Turks were expected to start looking more modern, rich and knowing a new language and culture. This was due to the adaptation and colonisation of the British and French people who started to live in Turkiye. Till today, some communities rather adapt to the modern living and English speaking which clashes with the Turkish pronunciations.

  • Thao says:

    My first in-depth encounter of Australian indigenous language and culture was when I visited Uluru a few years ago. There, I learnt about their culture and was taught a few Aboriginal words. It is interesting that for the purpose of tourism, everything Aboriginal was showcased. This was another world within a nation. Alice Springs had no such emphasis on Aboriginal presence. I contrast this to the welcome signage at my local pool in Melbourne. The welcome sign displays translations of the word ‘welcome’ in various languages, but none are Aboriginal. And yet, it is common these days to pay respect to the traditional owners of this land while having no reference to the language of the original people. If we are to truly acknowledge their presence , then I believe we should also incorporate their language into mainstream displays of multiculturalism, since language is identity.

    • Thank you, Thao! Macquarie University recently renamed its campus “Wallamuttagal” in recognition of the Indigenous group on whose lands our campus sits. “Welcome” in their language, the Dharug language, is “worimi” and we heard it only today during graduation

      • Thao says:

        That is a good start to recognising the traditional people, Ingrid. As they say, you need to ‘walk the talk’.

      • Lily says:

        Hi Thao, I couldn’t agree more with you about this. It would be great to learn about Aboriginal culture and know at least some basic words of their language. You are right it is interesting how we use and show Aboriginal arts and share their music for tourism purposes only. It is really sad and disappointing that everywhere we go around Australia we see signs with the word welcome translated into many languages except Aboriginal even though they are the traditional owners of the country and they have a beautiful history and great stories. There art works are fascinating and should be made as popular as Australian animals and other Australian symbols. Also, I agree that their language should be incorporated into mainstream displays of multiculturalism. I hope one day Aboriginal language would be a part of the Australian school curriculum and be taught in schools so our new generation can revive the language.

  • Thanks, Em! Road signs are usually quite standardised and follow international conventions. That’s why there isn’t so much diversity in road signs. Are other signs (e.g. commercial, historical etc) also so systematic in your observation?

  • SunKyung says:

    From this article, I could see several kinds of aspects that you would like to reaffirm to the readers. There were a few things mixed in this article; Latin, indigenous people – related to clan and dispossession from colonial period related to legacy of colonised and so on.

    First, I’ve never known Australia was colonised by British because I’ve always heard about indigenous minority group who were taken away their land to Australians.
    Secondly, I could noticed that a few German; starker and Mutter. Those were the evidence of Germanic roots of language that you’ve explained in the previous class I think.
    Thirdly, you would like to argue for the dispossession from the relationship between Latin which still remained in Australia and dispossession.

    This article suggested many things, however you’ve tried to find the identity of Latin and Australians from the logo on a bus shelter. Impressive it was!

  • Em says:

    Thank you for the very interesting writing, I really enjoyed this. I actually have not crossed paths to indigenous language yet here in Australia, but I would like to tell you something I have seen back in Finland.

    In Tampere, which is 2 hours north from Helsinki, you will see all the road signs only in Finnish, and English if you are in the centre. However, if you drive a few hours up to the coast, all the signs are starting to change from Finnish to Swedish, and you will reach Pietarsaari, where basically all the written texts, including restaurant menus, are in Swedish. I believe that is the way of saying that majority of the city’s population is Swedish-speaking people, and it is more convenient for them to use their first language in their everyday lives. You can also find Swedish road signs basically anywhere from the coast, but always there is the same in Finnish too. This is something, how the language has been used to mark the areas as the property of a specific group.

    • Ziadah Ziad says:

      Couldn’t agree more! In Indonesia, most signs in the airports are written in Indonesian and English but the operators who call the passengers for boarding in three languages, those are Indonesian, English, and the local tongue of the area where the airport is. This is a means to remind travelers where they are. Your comment also makes me wonder about the significant differences caused by geographical borders (ocean and land) in how languages affect one another. Further, it makes me imagine that the Finnish and Swedish are like a spectrum of one color. Emma, is it Kulning tradition in Sweden and Finland the same? I watched an incredibly famous Scandinavian Youtuber named Jonna Jinton performing this herd call.

  • Haein says:

    By visiting the Sydney Museum and doing readings, I know how white people handled indigenous people in the past. However, I’ve not seriously thought about the aspect of indigenous languages. Thank you for sharing this interesting article!

    Korea was colonised between 1910 and 1945 by Japan. They prohibited Japanese from using Korean and added Japanese lessons to the school curriculum in order to control and rule the Korean ethnicity. For this reason, there are still many uses of Japanese in vocabulary and signs. In particular, lots of banners and signs for restaurants and shops are used in Japanese. For example, 기스, which means scratch, comes from きず [Kizu], 크로켓, which means deep fried beef, comes from コロッケ [Korokke] and 땡땡이, which means dotted pattern, comes from てんてん [Den-ten]. Those words are almost pronounced the same as Japanese pronunciation, and they are also used a lot in written and spoken language.
    However, it was a controversial issue to use Japanese foreign words in signs and banners among Koreans because it affected Koreans’ ethnicities and traditions. Because of this, a policy to encourage the use of the Korean language was created, and these days, it has been difficult to find any Japanese words on public signs. However, it is still used in the spoken language, and many people do not even notice that they use the foreign words.

    • Thanks, Haein! Are these words still “foreign” or have they simply been incorporated into Korea, like so many other borrowings?

      • Haein says:

        Those words are still foreign language in Korea because some of those foreign words have pure Korean language. For instance, 기스 is called 흠집 and 땡땡이 is called 둥근 모양 in pure Korean.

    • Japanda says:

      Hi, Haein.

      Thank you for your interesting comment. First, I feel sorry for Japan’s colonizing Korea (I am Japanese). Second, I did not know that some Japanese words are used in Korea because of colonization. I have found that the three words you introduced are used in daily life and how the Japanese language spread to the Korean language and their life. Also, it’s interesting that コロッケ(Korokke), which is a popular Japanese food made by imitating French croquette, is used as a Korean word now. In the 19th century, France was much more developed than Japan and Japanese people mimicked the ways they did, and korokke is a good example. I can see that languages, cultures, and history are strongly connected by paying attention to my favorite food. I have no idea how French croquette and Korean 크로켓 taste like, so I would love to try them someday.

      • Logan says:

        Thank you for the interesting comments.
        Koreans indeed have antipathy toward using Japanese words when speaking in Korean. Typical examples are Warubashi (Waribash in Japanese, wooden chopsticks) and Smekiri (Tsumekiri in Japanese, nail clippers). Speaking of “gis (” kizu “in Japanese, scratch) mentioned by Haein, I don’t know why, but so many Korean are using it, even though there are pure Korean “흠 or 흠집”.

        When Japan colonized Korea in the 1930s, Japan implemented a policy to eliminate Korean traditions and culture. Koreans were forced to change their names to Japanese style at that time. Also, Japan destroyed Korean language education in school and forced Koreans to use only Japanese. Considering the history above, you can understand Koreans’ antipathy toward using Japanese when speaking Korean. I think that the issue is not so controversial these days.

        I think the croquette is an example of borrowing. There is no separate name in Korean. As Japanda said, French food croquette went to Japan and Korea, becoming localized.

  • Bob says:

    Thank you, Ingrid, for this very interesting article. It is fascinating to see how even a simple Latin slogan can tell us about the hidden interplay of language, power, and inequality. This story reminds me of how my country’s writing system changed over the centuries.

    In 938AD, after a millennium of Chinese rule, Vietnam adopted chữ Hán (translation: Literary Chinese) as the official writing system. This meant that all formal documents, governmental communications, scholarly writings and literature was written in Literary Chinese. From the 13th to the 19th century, the Vietnamese writing system was chữ Nôm (translation: ‘Southern characters’), which was a writing system that incorporated both Chinese characters and native words. Chữ Nôm became such a prominent part of the Vietnamese culture back then that famous literary works was written in chữ Nôm, including Truyện Kiều (translation: The tale of Kieu). However, in the 17th century, the French missionary Alexandre de Rhodes published the romanization of Vietnamese, which uses Latin characters and diacritics. Because this new writing system was easier to teach, it gradually replaced chữ Nôm as the national language script, and by the French colonization of Vietnam, the Latin script had became the official writing system.

    Both chữ Hán and chữ Nôm used Chinese script, and therefore was highly complex, so much so that only a small proportion of the population had access to formal education. It was not until the 19th century that the majority of the population had access to formal education, as the Latinized script was easier to teach. While the French colonization of Vietnam represented a period of hardships for the population, it was also a turning point for the country, as education became more accessible and widespread.

    • Thank you, Bob, for this insightful and detailed explanation of the history of Vietnamese writing, and how it relates to both colonisation and mass education.

    • Clara says:

      It is interesting to read your comment about the development of the Vietnamese writing system. This brought me back to the time when I was a student in high school. I have been taught about well-known poems written in “chữ Nôm”, like the tale of Kieu as you mentioned, but I was unaware of how our ancestors adopted it. Until now, all renowned literacy works changed to Latin script as it is easy for both students and teachers to learn and teach. We ourselves do not know how much the type of writing we are producing today will change in the future, but the shift from Chinese script to Latin script helps a lot in making the writing system complete.

      However, from my viewpoint, nothing can truly be described as traditional or a custom. We also find it challenging to determine if a change is positive or negative. Simply said, it corresponds to the social milieu of each historical era. Perhaps the best and most precious thing about the Latin alphabet is its transcendent convenience. Perhaps the best and most precious thing about the Latin alphabet is its transcendent convenience, and it allows Viet Nam to integrate with the world easily. The sole regret of switching to Latin script is that future Vietnamese generations won’t be able to fully appreciate the depth of the writing done by Han-Nom characters when they see them in museums or historical sites.

  • koki says:

    Thank you for this interesting article, to be honest i never heard of Ku-RING-GAI, but i always see a lot of latin signage and i never asked my self or was curious to know the reason behind it but now i’m more aware of it. For instance, Algeria was dominated by French extensive colonial settlement for so long, Algerian people were forced to speak french and were forbidden from learning their aboriginal language as back then France had a slogan which is “Algeria is France”, also all the architecture and culture was changed even school and hospital names were named after French people such us SAINT Augustin, Pierre et Marie curie and many other locations were named after French people just to eradicate the aboriginal culture of the country. In fact, Algerian tried hardly to maintain their indigenous language and culture but it was very hard for them during the extensive colonial settlement and even after the settlement as the war lasted 132 years which made it difficult to change the culture back to the aboriginal culture, but they trying to make a balance between both languages as after 132 years a new generation grew with new mentality language and culture so obviously it will take many other years to go back to the previous aboriginal culture.

  • Ying says:

    Thank you, Ingrid. By reading this article, I learned more about the history of Aboriginal Australia. In Hong Kong, many Hong Kong people like to include English in their speech. This is because Hong Kong has been influenced by 100 years of British colonial rule, and the language environment has also been affected, which has gradually become an expression habit. I think it’s a cultural fusion and the evolution of language to the norm. In fact, Hong Kong also has many commonly used foreign words that have been localized, such as “沙展(Sergeant)”,“巴士(Taxi)”,“巴士(Bus)”,“啫喱(jelly)”, these words are the source of Since English, it has gradually become colloquial. Cultural fusion is reflected in language.

    • Thank you, Ying! You are right – cultural fusion is reflected in language but not all forms of language and culture contact are fusions; the linguistic consequences of settler colonialism (as in Australia) and treaty port colonialism (as in HK) have been very different …

    • Yoonie says:

      Hello, I was keen about the changes in Hong Kong.
      After Hong Kong is back to China, I wonder if there were many changes in terms of English speaking population and people’s sentiment towards China.
      I heard many firms are strugglilng to adapt into the new governmental policies and restrictions.
      It would be great if you could share some of your thoughs on the major changes.
      Thank you!

    • Sharkie says:

      Hi Ying,

      It is really interesting to explore Hong Kong’s cultural fusion, it is easy to notice them in Cantonese terms. And those loanwords that you mentioned are also common words we use in daily lives, such as 搭的士 (Take a taxi) or 食啫喱(Eat jelly). These are somehow reflecting that Hong Kong was deeply influenced by the English language. Which is not the case in Macau, another Cantonese speaking country and it was colonised by Portuguese.

      In Macau, the only cultural fusion that we can really see are the names of the places (e.g. 亞馬喇前地 – Ferrira Amaral Square), food names (e.g. a type of fish called 馬介休 – bacalhau) and Western style buildings. Apart from that, It does not seem to really have any common words that are derived from Portuguese, which I find a bit odd. I guess the main reason could be due to US imperialism back in the 20th century, and urban globalisation influenced people to use English language during the time period, which deeply affects Cantonese-English language and contact at the same time.

      • Thanks, Sharkie! Great idea to compare language and culture contact in 2 such similar places as Hong Kong and Macau that differ just on one big “variable”. I guess the difference between English and Portuguese in these two places is that Portuguese is nothing but a colonial language; with English, on the other hand, everyone has a love-hate relationship …

      • Chloe says:

        Hi ying,

        It is very interesting what you say about cultural integration and the evolution of language. I have never paid much attention to this point until you mentioned it. Because people use these words so naturally, it’s easier to ignore their origins. I think the language you mentioned (巴士) is a borrowed word. And this evolution of language is not only limited to Hong Kong, Japanese and Korean also have a lot of borrowed word. Such as, Bus (バス / 버스) ice cream (アイスクリーム / 아이스크림 ). But all these words have become deeply embedded in the culture of each country, forming their own unique language.This is very interesting. The words have been incorporated in such a way that many people, like me, would not even pay attention or notice if they were not reminded by others.

  • 烏 (からす) says:

    Indigenous languages in the United States are but a pale shadow of their former selves, and outside of Diné, not a single one has enough living speakers to fill our largest football stadiums.

    Similar to Celtic in England, indigenous US placenames are ubiquitous; 24 states can trace their names back to words of definitively native origin. My own Michigan is one such example, which comes from the Ojibwe word “mishigami”, meaning “great lake”. Children are taught about the indigenous population in primary school, but not in any great detail. Otherwise, there is sadly no awareness of indigenous languages among the non-indigenous population. (I’m just realizing now that even I, with my interest in languages, don’t know a single non-place word of any of the ancestral tribal languages of my region: Ojibwe and Potawatomi. Maybe I owe it to the displaced peoples of my homeland to devote some language study in this area…)

    Australia, as another neo-Europe, has many parallels with the United States. It seems to me that Australia, however, has at least begun the difficult task of acknowledging its colonial past and bringing awareness to indigenous peoples/practices, whereas the United States remains reticent to follow suit.

  • Miumiu says:

    Thank you, Ingrid! The story of Ku-ring-gai reminds me of the name origin of one of the beautiful cities in Vietnam – Nha Trang.

    It is a significant tourist destination in Vietnam and is located on the country’s central southern coast. Some researchers agree that the name Nha Trang comes from a Vietnamese spelling of Ea Dran (meaning “Reed River”), the name of the Cai River in the Cham language. It wasn’t until 1698 that Vietnam claimed formal control over this region.

    The area still maintains cultural and religious reflection of the Cham people. Nha Trang’s Ponagar Temple, constructed between the 8th and 13th centuries, is a prime example of Cham-style architecture. The Ponagar temple festival was held every year. People can learn about its history, architecture, and spirituality when going there. They can also watch the Cham dance performed by the Cham music group.

    Unlike the shared story of Ku-ring-gai, the story of Nha Trang marks the contact of language, history, and culture, which is now still embraced by Vietnamese and Cham ethnic people.

  • Dung says:

    Thank you for sharing an amazing article! To be honest, till now, I haven’t had any chance to encounter indigenous languages in Australia, but I hope that I can be exposed to them in future.
    Today I want to share about Koho language, which is a language of an indigenous people of a mountainous area – Lam Dong province in Vietnam. It is widely used in speaking and writing form in daily life among Koho people. An interesting fact is that Koho language is also used by some of other ethnic groups in Vietnam such as Kaho Cil, Kaho Lạch, Kaho Mạ. According to some research, there are at least 12 dialects in Koho language. They are Chil (Cil, Til); Kalop (Tulop); Kơyon (Kodu, Co-Don); Làc (Làt, Lach); Mà (Mạ, Maa); Nồp (Nop, Xre Nop, Noup); Pru; Ryông Tô (Riồng, Rion); Sop, Sre (Chau Sơre, Xrê); Talà (To La); Tring (Trinh). Koho language is also influenced by French because of the language and culture contact in the 1600s between Koho people and French missionaries. For example, Koho people also call baguette with a nearly similar sound /bà-ghét/. Vietnamese also has a certain impact on modern Koho language because there are some Vietnamese words often seen in this language. For example: ‘bok cơm’ in Koho language means ‘ăn cơm’ in Vietnamese. I am so lucky to be born in Lam Dong and to be exposed to Koho community and their language. I used to attend a class of Koho language and it was really a great experience.

    • Thank you, Dung! Is Koho used on public signs in the areas where it is spoken? If yes, on what kinds of signs?

      • Dung says:

        Yes, Koho is used on public signs in the areas where it is spoken. The underlying reason is that not all Koho people can understand Vietnamese standard national language. Therefore, in the living areas of this ethnic group in Lam Dong province, road signs always go with Koho language. The local government believes that it is effective because they still can follow road signs although they cannot really understand the meaning of the signs.

    • Miumiu says:

      Thank you, Dung for sharing such an exciting story about the Koho language.
      I did some research and realized that the contact between Kinh and Koho languages massively started after the reunification when many lowland Kinh were moved to the highland areas by the Vietnamese government in 1976 due to the new economic policy. Among the people that speak Koho, the Sre dialect is the most prestigious. This is because the territory inhabited by Sre had early interaction with Europeans during the French colonial period.

      The aspect that I find interesting is the politeness strategy in Koho which cannot be found in Vietnamese. There are three different kinds of imperative sentences: polite inclusive (Ɂih or laʔ), polite exclusive (jə), and impolite exclusive (tɛʔ). I wonder if the French influenced this structure?

      • Thanks, Miumiu! Would the translations of these forms be something like this:
        Polite inclusive: “Let’s close the window!”
        Polite exclusive: “Can you close the window, please?”
        Impolite exclusive: “Close the window!”
        As in English, it’s possible to express these meanings in French but they are not encoded in the morphology. I’d be very surprised if what you describe has anything to do with French influence. Maybe it’s just specific to Koho? Do other languages in the area have a similar system?

  • Lily says:

    This article is very interesting, I have heard of Ku-Ring-Gai and always thought it relates to Aboriginal language because of the sound of it. It is very upsetting to live in Australia and not know much about the history of Aboriginal. What is surprising that I always see logos with Latin language as mentioned in the article but never thought of the reason why Latin is used or what the words mean. Its very interesting to learn about this and be able to understand what the words means and why they are used. As the Levant was an important region of the Ottoman Empire, comprised of modern day Lebanon and Syria and after the conflict happened through famine and deprivation, compounded in 1918 by its capture by British imperial force and the region became under control of the French. The people of Lebanon and Syria where left with so many Turkish language synonyms that they still use till the present time. There are so many words that we use only because we hear our parents say it. As for the French language it became a part of our teaching curriculum and we use the French language on stores signage, street signage even in TV commercials. But this have never override the Arabic language that is the main language used and taught in both countries.

    • Thanks, Lily! I, too, find it upsetting how little Australians know about the non-British history of this continent; I used to think this was a migrant issue and only affected people who haven’t gone to school here and who came here with their own histories … now, I know this is not true, and the history of colonization, dispossession, frontier wars, White Australia etc. is not really taught in schools. It’s hard to see how reconciliation can be achieved as long as non-Indigenous Australians know so little …

    • koki says:

      Hi lily,

      i totally agree with you when you said we live in Australia and we don’t know much about Aboriginal culture except few things even though, they have very rich heritage that could add a flavour to this country. also when you talked about the french colonialism in both countries Lebanon and Syria, i found a lot of similarities to our history in Algeria , as you mentioned both countries started mixing their mother tongue language with French and they started using French language everywhere. However, the only difference is the colonialism in Lebanon did not prevent them from keepin their Arabic language and they knew how to keep their language and use the other language with it, unfortunately this isn’t the case in some countries as sometimes its very hard to keep the language with a long period of colonialism and unfortunately this is very upsetting.

  • Kat says:

    Thank you for sharing this, Ingrid! It is interesting to be able to read more about the Aboriginal peoples of Australia. Before coming to Australia, I had no knowledge of Aboriginal people. Knowing what the Aboriginal people had to go through was incredibly sad.

    In Vietnam, before using Latin characters as it is today, there were Chinese characters and “Nôm” characters in the past. Because of China’s dominance in Vietnam, Chinese characters were introduced. Then, the Vietnamese created the “Nôm” characters in response to the necessity to record the national voice. They applied the structural principles of Chinese characters to develop “Nôm” characters. However, with its complexity, only those who knew Chinese could use it, namely the intellectuals of that time. In addition, due to some sensitive political issues, it was gradually excluded. However, it cannot be denied that “Nôm” characters are valuable as historical documents, and they fully express the historical worldview of the Vietnamese people themselves. The script was used to record folk songs and many literary works, showing the Vietnamese people’s lives and perspectives in the previous period. Some notable literary works are still taught in schools at the moment.

    • Thanks, Kat! The fact that Chinese script was difficult to learn was also the motivation for the Hangul script: https://www.languageonthemove.com/happy-hangul-day/. As the Chinese script was used for Vietnamese much longer than for Korean, I’m wondering whether there is any desire in Vietnam to bring it back?

    • Haein says:

      Hi Kat,
      It is interesting to read your comment about the history of creating “Nôm” characters. I’m extremely sympathetic to the fact that Vietnam was colonised by China because Korea was also colonised by China. For this reason, it affects the creation of Korean characters, like Vietnamese “Nôm” characters. It is estimated that Chinese characters, which are called ‘Hanja’ in Korean, were introduced to ancient Korea in the second century BC. However, it was difficult to read and write freely in all status of Korean, so King Sejong created “Hangul,” which is the Korean language writing system for all Koreans practically, to preserve Korean ethnicities. Even though it is difficult to find public signs or banners in Chinese characters and most Chinese characters are written in Korean now, the academic terms and dictations of ancient texts still use Chinese characters to understand the meaning of statements thoroughly. Furthermore, the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea designates 1,800 commonly used Chinese characters and requires them to be taught in middle and high schools. For these reasons, I believe that we cannot deny the impact of language from colonisers.

    • Emma says:

      Hi Kat, thank you for your interesting information. I am also Vietnamese, so I think this is a fascinating factor to discuss when it comes to language in Vietnam. In the past, I was also confused between “Nôm” characters and Chinese because they look similar. However, after doing some research, I realised the importance of the birth of “Nôm” during that time. Even though “Nôm” characters have almost disappeared nowadays, it is still a language that cannot be forgotten. One well-known literal work written in “Nôm” characters is worth mentioning, namely “The tale of Kieu.” I can guarantee that every secondary student knows about it. When I first learned “The tale of Kieu”, I did not enjoy it because of its complexity. It was not until I was in University that I could understand the meaning and value of this work. It is a good thing to add “the tale of Kieu” to the curriculum, but I believe that it is pretty soon and sometimes overload for students when they have to learn it since secondary. What do you think about it?

  • BJYX_sengarun says:

    I haven’t had any experience with Indigenous languages in Australia. Hence, I want to share a story of how languages are used to mark territory in my country.

    The capital city of Vietnam, Hanoi, has undergone various stages of altering its name. One similarity between the names is that they are all of Sino-Vietnamese origin.
    When Vietnam was under Chinese domination, Hanoi was called Tong Binh (around 454 to 767), then Long Do, and later Dong Quan. However, whenever Vietnam regained its dependence, the kings changed the name of the capital to reclaim its territory. Based on its geographical features, Kings of different dynasties renamed the capital instead of using the same name created under Chinese domination. For instance, Dong Quan, which was used for the capital during Ming Dynasty, meant the eastern gate of the Chinese Feudal State, showing discrimination of the Ming Dynasty against the capital of Vietnam. Nevertheless, when Vietnam was liberated, the capital was changed to Dong Kinh (eastern imperial city). In 1831, the name “Hanoi” was born owing to its geographical location. “Hanoi” means “inside the rivers” as the city is located between 2 rivers: Nhi River (Red River) and Thanh Quyet River (Day River).

  • Emma says:

    Thank you, Ingrid; I always enjoy reading every article of yours since I can understand different aspects of linguistics and cultures. As a citizen of Vietnam, I also came across many signs and places that were named using borrowing words. One of the typical places based in Hanoi is called Saint Paul Hospital. While the other hospitals are usually named after their specialities, Saint Paul (Xanh-Pôn in Vietnamese transcription) is a transliteration of the French word L’Hôpital de Saint-Paul, which means St Paul’s Hospital. The reason for this name is that Saint Paul was founded in 1902, which was the French colonial time in Indochina. Even though more than 100 years have passed and plenty of hospitals have changed their name to Vietnamese ones, they still keep the name Saint Paul due to its popularity.

    • Thanks, Emma! Sometimes changing a name is more hassle than it’s worth it …

    • Em says:

      That’s so interesting! And actually got me thinking of the same things in my home town, and there’s multiple same kinds of stories behind places names too. I haven’t actually never thought about that before.

    • Paul Joseph Desailly says:

      To hundreds of thousands of people In Hanoi early in September 1945 Ho Chi Minh is said to have declared independence primarily in Vietnamese but also using French. Polyglottal Uncle Ho on that historic occasion, that bore little fruit because of Truman’s position, is reported to have said a few words – wait for it folks – in Esperanto too: https://www.ilovelanguages.com/how-many-language-does-ho-chi-minh-speak/ According to an article on the British Library’s website, and voiced in the Presidential Palace Hanoi, 1999, (I took the photo) by the then Australian president of the Universal Esperanto Association, the Attorney General Kep Enderby Q.C., Esperanto in Asia is indebted to president Ho Chi Minh, more so than to chairman Mao who also supported it when holed up in Yan’an, Shaanxi. https://blogs.bl.uk/european/2017/07/esperanto-as-an-asian-language.html

  • Ella says:

    I have not encountered anyone related to this topic, but it did remind me of our history.

    Korea was colonized by Japan for about 35 years from 1910. Back then, Korea was called Joseon Dynasty. During the Japanese colonial period, Koreans suffered from many unfortunate rules that forced them to abandon their identities as Koreans, and one of them was related to the language; Koreans were forced to use Japanese. They were not allowed to use Korean last names and had to change last names in Japanese. However, our ancestors did not give up our language, which, I believe, made the future generation possible to use Korean and maintain our identities as Koreans. Still, there are remnants of Japanese colonialism related to language, such as Japanese last names found in land registers.
    The efforts to protect the Korean language helped them to protect their identities as Korean. Without these efforts, we could end up using other languages that are not ours.

    • Thank you, Ella, for this relevant example! As we discussed in class, conquest languages without extensive settlement usually don’t outlast the conquerors for long, but it’s much more difficult to maintain indigenous languages when there is extensive colonial settlement.

    • Milla says:

      Thank you for your interesting comment, Ella! As a European, I am very unfamiliar with Asian history. It was new information for me to hear about Korean colonization. It must be important for today’s Korea and Korean culture that the use of the native language was not successfully suppressed during the colonization.

      In Finland, we have a quite similar experience, but the other way round. Sami people are the indigenous people of Lapland. Even recently in the 20th century, the Sami children were not allowed to speak the Sami language in school. The children were forced to speak Finnish and leave their families during the school sessions to get integrated into Finnish society. Unfortunately, this time left its’ mark on the Sami people and is considered a very traumatic period in their history. Although there are still Sami people in Scandinavia, many generations lost contact with their native culture because of this linguistic and cultural suppression.

  • Justin says:

    I haven’t lived in Australia long enough to understand the influence of its aboriginal languages, and my encounters so far are through place names, so I’ll leave this for later research.

    I particularly enjoy reading name signs. When I was in South Korea, many signs of stations or roads have both Hangul (Korean alphabet) and Hanja (Chinese characters) writings. Also, identity cards have citizens’ names written in both systems. These are probably governmental practices in preserving Hanja. Not many Koreans comprehend this logographic system (or find the need to), but its presence is somewhat visible in daily life (not excessively though).

    However, the trace is less evident in Vietnam, despite a past of using Chinese characters. Nowadays, people have almost no contact with this system as it has been abandoned in daily life, with public signs written solely by the Latin-based alphabet. Being a 17th-century development of the West, this script successfully replaced all former Vietnamese writing systems, which now receive no government incentives for mainstream use.

    While I’d say both Koreans and Vietnamese have dismissed using Chinese characters daily, the latter did it much faster even though Hangul had two hundred years ahead of our “chữ quốc ngữ.”

    • Thank you, Justin, for this interesting observation! With the increasing influence of China, do you think Chinese might be making a comeback in Vietnam in the future?

      • Justin says:

        Actually, in Vietnam, Chinese characters can still be seen in historical places and pagodas, and also used for some calligraphic texts, but these uses are limited to decorative values only. Practically speaking, given the convenience of reading and writing in Latin alphabet, I don’t see Chinese characters being revived in future at all. Also, the love-hate relationship we often have with the country causes much reluctance to do so. Having said that, learning Chinese as a foreign language is still a popular choice for students.

        • Thanks, Justin! Makes sense. Do you think there is a sense of loss that people cannot read such Chinese inscriptions when they visit historical places and pagodas? That the texts are purely decorative but only specialists can get the meaning?

          • Justin says:

            I think Vietnamese people now don’t perceive the disappearance of Chinese characters as a sign of loss, but rather a sense of nationalism that could separate us from the Chinese influence. Those who learn and understand the inscriptions are usually those who are more interested in Chinese language and history. However, we do embrace the Sino influence in terms of the rich vocabulary and sophisticated meaning of words, but the writing system doesn’t matter much in this.

  • Ziadah Ziad says:

    It’s fascinating to read how words can track history back in time and clarify what’s ours and what things that do not belong to us. Like the word “Ku-Ring-Gai” and Latin words attached in many places in Australia that show to whom this land actually belongs to. What I notice most is when a country/tribe/organization invades a country, they will first change the name of the main city/place. For example, Myanmar was called Yangon, Ho Chi Minh was called Saigon, and Jakarta was named Batavia, I am wondering about the original names of the cities in Australia. Names (words) indeed keep the historical pain.

    Now the question is how do we fix history? The Western Australian Government apologized to Indigenous people and Strait Torres Islanders in 1997, becoming the first government who spread this awareness in Australia. Then followed by all states. The USA apologized to Native Americans in 2010. On behalf of Japan, Shinzo Abe apologized to Korea, China, and to many other countries in 2015, Dutch apologizes to Indonesia in 2018, etc. If your family member were one of the direct victims, will you be strong enough to accept the apology? Do you think an apology is enough? Should they apologize for the past that their ancestors have done? Don’t you think it is also a burden to be one of the biggest beneficiaries of colonialization?

    Anyway, this article makes me realize that justice is indeed the most expensive thing on Earth, probably we (humans) won’t be able to afford it.

    • Important questions, Ziadah! Each of these apologies is a bit different and probably needs to be evaluated differently. The way I understand the Dutch apology to Indonesia it was for violence during WW2 but not for 300 years of colonialism. I’d be curious to know what Indonesians make of that?

      • Ziadah Ziad says:

        Many Indonesians are happy about it. For them, history is history. There are some words/expressions that Indonesians love to say “Semua ada hikmahnya (there is a silver lining in every cloud)” and “sabar (be patient)”.

        Many Indonesians also think that apology is not serious since first it is not followed by reparation payments like what Japan has paid to Korean and or Germany paid to Jews. Second, at the same time, the Dutch government funded a 4 million euros project including research and other media projects (2017-2020) for their own version of history. In this project, Indonesian historians are completely excluded. This project has been criticized by many international and Indonesian historians (212) Mariëtte Wolf (NIOD) about the exclusion of K.U.K.B. – YouTube. I think, Dutch Government made this project to avoid the reparation payments. Dutch probably cannot afford it, they only offered 5,000 Euros for the massacre in Ragawede in 1947 (I read this one in one of the international media) and this Massacre is not the major one. In Banda Naira, Dutch killed more than 15 thousand people in the 16th Century. I think Dutch Government is not as rich as Japan and Germany or probably they are rich but do not want to spend their money for redemption. So much for the 300-year sin of colonialization Ingrid. Dutch government also always emphasizes that VOC is an organization of European trade, which means that the Dutch should not be the only one to blame for the sin of history. Third, Dutch Government felt pressure to make that apology since many other developed countries are fixing their dark history.

        Sadly, the Indonesian government does not really take any significant steps until now, but probably because deep inside they both have something in common. Dutch Government is clearly not serious about their apology and the Indonesian government has not even apologized yet for 1965 to Chinese Indonesian, to people in East Timor, and needless to say to Papua.

    • Em says:

      You are on the verge of very important matters. However, I do not believe that the history can be fixed, and the influence of history has made us who we are now, for better and for worse.

      Nowadays, it is important that at least some countries have understood the impact of their history on others and apologized for it. No, it is certainly not enough in any way for people affected by the historical events, but it is a direction for the better, I hope. Even if the history has not been right for some at all and horrible things have happened, perhaps, the purpose of our history has been to teach us to appreciate big and small things?

      I have read that at least Fraser Island has started using the original name K’gari, like Ayers Rock was finally changed back to Uluru in the early 2000s. However, this is only the beginning, and it would be vital to show more respect for indigenous peoples around the world.

  • XM says:

    I really enjoyed reading the story of Ku-Ring-Gai as I get to know the history of indigenous Australians more. In the past, the city of Hong Kong was also under colonial influence, but fortunately the local language and customs were well preserved under British rule. Therefore, we are still able to trace back the history of many places through literature review, particularly the place named “Kowloon” – a peninsula that lies in front of Victoria Harbour. In Chinese, Kowloon means “nine dragons”. It is pronounced as “gauluhng” in Cantonese. There are different versions for its naming, yet the simplest version alludes to nine mountain ranges, or eight ranges plus the Chinese emperor(the equivalence of dragon). It is believed by Feng Shui specialists that such a setting belongs to ‘Yang’ the stronger side – geographically protected from severe tropical storm, enjoys warmer winter and cooler summer as it is facing the mountain from the north and a flowing stream of water (wealth) from the south.

    There is a traditional Chinese expression about parents wanting their sons to have a bright future and as powerful as a dragon (望子成龍), so there is a sense of momentum in the place of nine dragons.

  • Chocomilk says:

    When I used to live in the United States, I came across many depictions of the Native Americans. In the history books, novels, magazines, TV, places I traveled, etc. As a youth, the reality and background of the Native Americans did not strike me as much as they do to me now. The indigenous peoples of Canada were also confined in reserves and suffered diseases after the Europeans landed. Like the Aboriginal people of Australia, the Maori people of New Zealand are natives of the country. I remember seeing “Kia Ora” and other native language words on certain New Zealander websites.

    The painful history is not mentioned in everyday life. However, is the Latin logo somewhat like a remnant of the colonial past? I wonder whether this was meant to be? Whether the voice of the indigenous peoples are being heard, that is the question. If Latin reflects, even in part, the colonial history of the Europeans, is it correct that the Latin sign and picture of the natives can be used together, or what about words describing Indigenous people coined by Non-indigenous people. I think it is really important to hear from the indigenous community and have more dialogue on this.

  • Brownie says:

    Hi Ingrid, I appreciate your work, every article is helpful to gain the acknowledge in linguistics field.

    Ho Chi Minh City which is one of the largest cities in Vietnam has an other name which is Saigon. As far as I know, there are some etymologies about the name “Saigon”.

    First, based on Sino-Vietnamese words, Sài is 柴 (Chái) which means “firewood” and Gòn is 棍 (Gùn) which means “stick”. 柴 棍 (Chái Gùn) maybe refer to a significant amount of kapot trees which were planted around the city by Khmer people.

    Other etymology is from Cantonese. Chợ Lớn, which is in the west of Mekong River and is an area including District 5, 6 and a part of District 11 of Ho Chi Minh city, has the Cantonese name which is Tai-Ngon (堤 岸) which means “embankment”. “Tai-Ngon” and “Saigon” are slightly similar in pronunciation.

    After the war, Saigon was changed to Ho Chi Minh City to honour and express gratitude to Hồ Chí Minh who is the Leader of the Communist Party of Vietnam because of his contribution to end the war in Vietnam.

    Nowadays, Vietnamese people use both names in daily life. However, “Ho Chi Minh City” is used in important documents such as identification cards and certificates.

    • Thank you, Brownie! This is a great example. Personally, although I admire Hồ Chí Minh (including for his multilingualism :-), I think Saigon with its unclear etymology is a better city name. It suggests a murky past built by many nameless and forgotten ancestors. I don’t think cities should be named after humans because it elevates one after all the others; and often these name patrons turn out to be quite nasty characters … did you know that most Australian capital cities are named after British men? Sydney is named after Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney; Melbourne is named after Minister William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne; Brisbane is named after Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane; Hobart is named after Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire; Darwin after Charles Darwin. Only Perth and Adelaide are slightly different: Perth is named after the city of Perth in Scotland and Adelaide is named after a British woman, Queen Adelaide …

      • SunKyung says:

        Hello, Brownie, I’ve read your comment very interestingly. I didn’t distinguish Saigon from Ho Chi Minh city before I’ve read your comment. However, nowadays Ho Chi Minh is more familiar. That’s because Ho Chi Minh city is popular as a travel attraction among Korean.

        When I’ve watched the musical titled, “Miss Saigon”, it was quite impressive. The title implies the city ‘Saigon’ I thought.

        Anyway, from your comment Ho Chi Minh sounded very peaceful as you’ve mentioned a kind of tree.

    • Chocomilk says:

      Thank you Brownie for your insight, I now understand the history behind Saigon and how the city’s name was changed to Ho Chi Minh City.
      Thank you Ingrid for the background on the names of Australian cities, I think street names that reflect historical figures are common for many English-speaking countries, given that many of these countries were under British rule in the past. Many street names and university names in the United States are such examples. Korea went through a huge transition in changing street names 10 years ago and there seems to be more street names now that are named after real people. I learned that this shift was to turn away from the Japanese road system and to define street names according to a more global standard.

  • rebma says:

    Thank you Ingrid, yes it is evident that people in power created a fantasy of belonging to hide the truth. During colonial period, the colonial countries left long-lasting impacts on the culture and language of the colonised, a lot of them we can still see today. Xiamen (Amoy), it’s a beautiful coastal city of Fujian, it’s my hometown. Growing up in Xiamen, we were surrounded by historical traces of western colonists since the earliest contact. The name Amoy, translated from Hokkien dialect was first used by Portuguese colonists who visited Xiamen and developed trading business at the port in the 16th century, and later widely used by other western colonists in the 19th century as Xiamen became a treaty port after the first Opium war. Even today, Amoy can be seen on the packages of special local product, street names in Hongkong and Singapore, as well as the logo of Xiamen University. On the logo, we see both the Chinese characters ‘厦门大学’ and Latin words ‘Universitas Amoiensis’ with the image of a shield in the middle. The logo stands out among all the other Universities in China with its Latin name and western elements.

    • Thank you, Rebma! What a fascinating example. I can’t believe that there is even one Chinese university with a Latin logo – I’ve added the logo to my collection of examples straight away.
      Another curious point about Latin in China: did you know that the official version of the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk (尼布楚條約) between the Qing Dynasty and Tsarist Russia was in Latin?

      • Rebma says:

        Yes, and there were inaccuracies about the treaty regarding to the actual boundaries of the lands being distributed, since neither the Qing dynasty nor the Tsarist Russia spoke Latin at the time. Both parties relied on multilingual missionaries to translate during negotiation of the treaty, and the translation turned out to be inaccurate.

  • Yoonie says:

    I have met a poet from Tasmania when I organized an event in a Korean island called Jeju. She told me she would rather like to visit historical places of Jeju than to visit other tourist destinations. So I helped her to sign up for a “Dark Tour” in Jeju, which basically takes people to histocially important places such as an elementary school that was bombed, a cave where an entire family was masscred, etc. There she told me how she felt related to the story as her hometown, Tasmania has a similar background. Later I read an article on Tasmania: how the aboriginal people had to be seperated from their parents, to be forced to attend English schools and to end up being vanished in the island. It is a good thing Australia keeps trying to remember their sacrifce. To make this effort more meaningful, we should contitnune to search for better ways to keep their second and third generation to survive and grow.

    • Thank you, Yoonie! What period of history does the dark tour in Jeju relate to?

      • Yoonie says:

        It covers quit a range of historical periods, from a battle against Mongolia in 12C, the Japanese invasion and the Korean army’s attack on civilians in the 19C. Jeju is a beautiful country but it has a long history of surviving attacks not only from other countries but also from its own nation, so-called the mainland.

  • Japanda says:

    Okinawa Prefecture, which is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture in Japan, is quite unique in terms of its cultures and languages. This is because Okinawa is far from the main islands of Japan and King Sho Hashi united the Okinawa islands and founded a single kingdom called the Ryukyu Islands in 1429. The kingdom traded with China, Korea, and Southeast Asia as well as other islands of Japan and it was strongly influenced by them. This way, unique cultures and languages were created in Okinawa.

    However, the use of the local languages was prohibited by the Japanese government in the late 19th century, standard Japanese spread because of mass media, and Okinawa was dominated by the US until 1972 after World War Two. Influenced by these factors, only 0.4 percent of teenagers can understand the Ryukyuan languages while 54 percent of people who are 70 years old or older can understand them. Also, the languages were designated as definitely or severely endangered languages by UNESCO in 2009.

    In order to prevent the Ryukyuan languages from being endangered, they are now used for souvenirs and advertisements in Okinawa. When I visited there, I realized that people in Okinawa used words with Ryukyuan intonation. Moreover, NTT Docomo, which is the largest Internet company in Japan, made a “dictionary” with local people in Okinawa. The company asked them to upload videos about the Ryukyuan languages and share them online. This way people in Okinawa keep their identity by preserving their languages and make it different from the main islands of Japan.

    • Thank you, Japanda! I wrote about the discourses of language revitalization and anti-imperialism on the Ryukyus some time ago: https://www.languageonthemove.com/language-revitalization-and-liberation/ – you might find the post interesting. I’m wondering what you make of Ryukyu language revitalization as commercialization, and caught between the national language Japanese and the global language English. I think using Ryukyu on souvenirs and as a tourist commodity changes it to a symbol of another identity – not a local one but a global one …

    • Rebma says:

      Thank you Japanda, for the information about Ryukyuan language. I found that the revitalisation of an endangered language is extremely difficult since it usually requires the ethnic and indigenous minorities to learn one or more languages in power as a medium to promote and retain their own languages. However, this is usually counterproductive like the example of Ryukyuan language revitalisation movements in which English and Japanese language were further promoted. The struggle to strengthen one’s own identity by learning another language in power can also be seen at national level with English being the predominant language in the world. In China, English is the compulsory subject at school from year 3 and increasing English proficiency for Chinese citizens is believed to have a positive impact on Chinese political and diplomatic status in the globalized world. But it seems that the spreading of English has adversely impacted on Chinese language itself. For example, the writing skills in Chinese has been negatively impacted by the increasing proficiency of English for young Chinese citizens. This in turn resulted in the Chinese government prioritising literacy Education of Chinese in protection of the national language and identity.

      • Justin says:

        Thank you, Rebma for sharing your views. I admit that revitalising endangered languages is a difficult task since speakers of those peripheral languages need to learn the central ones so that they can bring awareness to their own ones. But I think it is necessary – think about the story of Hani women – only by education can these overlooked people find ways to make themselves and their languages known to the community. Also, it would be unfair to say English and Japanese gain higher status from the Ryukyuan language revitalisation since these languages are already there for quite some time before this movement.

        As for the identity question, my view is that bilingualism can actually strengthen one’s identity. Those who successfully learn another language appear to have better consciousness of their language use and not take their mother tongue for granted. The deterioration of writing skills in Chinese among the youth that you witness doesn’t necessarily have to do with English popularity. It might be technology, with all these autocorrection or word suggestion features, or something else. After all, it all comes to individuals what kind of language user they want to be. Language contact is always inevitable.

        • Thanks, Justin! Blaming the next generation for the corruption of language (and morals, and everything, really) also seems a human constant … this article has 2,500 years worth of quotes about the deterioration of the next generation ;-(
          Including this gem:

          “Modern fashions seem to keep on growing more and more debased … The ordinary spoken language has also steadily coarsened.”

          Nothing to do with English or the Internet … the quote is 700 years old (from Tsurezuregusa “Essays in Idleness” by Yoshida Kenkō, a Japanese author and Buddhist monk)

  • Abed says:

    Very interesting to see all these underlying messages in the logos. I have always wondered why these huge institutes always have their logos in Latin. I also came across this during my time I spent in the US. I was stunned when I knew the meaning the famous logo “Veni Vidi Vici” on Phillip Morris products, which means “I came, I saw, I conquered.” I would never have guess that at all. Then I started looking at the US dollar and all these Latin words and symbols. The more I read, the more I get shocked. On the top of the pyramid just right above the single eyes, which symbolically represent the eye of God that sees everything, there are two words in Latin “Annuit Coeptis” which literally means “He approves of the undertakings.” And in the bottom of that pyramid there is the phrase “Novus ordo seclorum” which translate to “New world order.” Both of these phrases have been linked to Virgil’s work, but many people link all of this to Illuminati and conspiracy theories. Nevertheless, I do not think all these logos have any underlying message other than the culture that they are driven from.

    • Thanks, Abed! These are great examples of the use of Latin in unexpected places! I don’t think they signal any conspiracy theories, either, but maybe something even more insidious: the settlers’ will to rule and their belief in the divine sanction of their theft of these lands …

  • Ste says:

    Over the past fifteen to twenty years, Cantonese, one of my mother tongues, has become progressively weaker in Guangzhou in comparison to Mandarin, the official language of China. In the 2000s, when I was a teenager, Cantonese was still a widely used language in Guangzhou, and I heard and spoke it frequently across the city. People coming from outside of Guangdong Province were still keen on learning Cantonese, and Cantonese dictionaries and textbooks with audio were the hot-selling items at bookstores in the city. To be able to speak Cantonese was a fundamental and essential skill, especially in service-oriented industries, like hospitality. At that time, few people would have said something like, “I don’t understand Cantonese, so please speak Mandarin.”

    However, during the past decade, Mandarin has become the dominant language in Guangzhou as the population has exploded due to migration from outside Guangdong province. As a result, the motivation for individuals to learn Cantonese has gradually diminished. People have fewer or even zero obstacles to live without Cantonese. Now, we can rarely see Cantonese dictionaries and textbooks at the bookstores. More and more waiters or waitresses exclusively speak Mandarin at Cantonese restaurants.

    Intriguingly, although we do not speak Cantonese as frequently as we did in the past, what still marks a Cantonese person as Cantonese is their accent and manner when they speak Mandarin. Imagine that you are at a Mandarin-speaking occasion with people coming from different provinces of the country, the very first and most direct way to distinguish a Cantonese person from the Mandarin-speaking crowd is to listen to their accent, because a local Cantonese person would try desperately to pronounce the Mandarin retroflex consonants such as “r” and the nasal consonants such as “ang” and “eng”. The second way to identify a native Cantonese speaker is to pay attention to their use of words and phrases. For examples, we can often hear some borrowing words from Cantonese into Mandarin, such as “豉油 si you” (soy sauce) as in Mandarin “酱油jiang you”, and “一条邋遢裤 yi tiao la ta ku” (a pair of dirty trousers) as in Mandarin “一条肮脏裤 yi tiao ang zang ku”.

    We are free to choose where to live or what language we want to speak now, but the language we were born and raised with, our mother tongue, is inscribed on this traditional land and reveals who we truly are.

    • Thanks, Ste! The relationship between language and land is so fascinating – can migrants ever achieve a connection to the land? And what does it mean for connection to country when a language gets displaced, as you describe?

      • Ste says:

        Hi Ingrid,

        To address your response, I assume that the link between the migrants and the land is now nearly impossible to establish. As stated in my previous comment, a newcomer can reside in Guangzhou without knowing the local language. Since, in mainland China, written Cantonese has never been a part of the formal education in the city and the written form of the language has never been standardised in Simplified Chinese (unlike the situation in Hong Kong where Cantonese can be conveyed through Traditional Chinese), Cantonese is almost only used for conveying basic information in the form of broadcasts in public places, such as subway train arrival broadcasts. Therefore, migrants in Guangzhou can hardly get a chance to learn and speak Cantonese. When Cantonese in Guangzhou is completely replaced by Mandarin, I think it will mark the beginning of the loss of the locals’ traditional cultural memories and the greater fusion of the Chinese nation.

    • Quynh says:

      Hi Ste,
      It is nice to have more insights into the view of a Cantonese speaker on the spread of Mandarin within Mainland China.
      Honestly, before coming to Australia and meeting many people speaking Cantonese and Mandarin, I have never noticed the difference between the two (I thought they were somehow mutually intelligible, but it turned out not).
      In Vietnam, Hong Kong’s TV series occupied most of our national channels during the 2000s. We are greatly familiar with the language and have also imported some as loanwords to our own. The most common one must be the word Bạc xỉu – a famous Vietnamese coffee with condensed milk that originated from 白底小啡 – Bái dǐ xiǎo fēi (small coffee with milk).
      I am urged to read more about the current state of Cantonese through your post. I am aware that the population speaking Cantonese will be on a declining trend, but the language will remain vital and could never diminish. The language is considered a heritage that carries the culture and identity of people who see it as their mother tongue, so it will surely be protected.
      It can be seen that Cantonese language preservation has been going well in Vietnam. Cantonese is spoken by the majority of Hoa people – Vietnam’s ethnic minority group of the Chinese community. There are many unfavourable social conditions that lead to the decline of its use nowadays, however, Hoa people have always been consistent in performing language transmission at home and sending children to Cantonese language centres in an effort to avoid the loss of ethnic identity.

    • BJYX_sengarun says:

      Hi Ste, I am really intrigued by your comment since I am in love with Chinese, both Cantonese, and Mandarin. About 2 years ago, I started to get interested in Chinese and at first, I thought Chinese only referred to Mandarin. But then when I learned Chinese, my teacher told us that apart from Mandarin which is widely taught in Vietnam, Cantonese is also spoken in China. In fact, my teacher said when she was studying in China, she encountered a lot of Chinese native speakers using Cantonese, which she couldn’t understand. Moreover, as far as I know, Cantonese is spoken not only in Guangzhou but also in other provinces like Guangdong, and Guangxi. It is also widely used in Hong Kong and Macau, as well as by overseas Chinese in Vietnam, Malaysia, and Singapore. Thus, I reckon that Cantonese is still treasured by numerous people. There are also various Cantonese songs that have become extremely well-known (especially in my country, Vietnam) such as Kiss Everywhere (處處吻) , Each person has a dream (一人有一個夢想). People from my country said that Cantonese brought them a feeling of sincerity and familiarity.

  • Milla says:

    Finland was under Swedish rule from Medieval times until the beginning of the 19th century, which led to broader use of Swedish, especially among the higher elite. Nowadays, Finland is a bilingual country where the majority of the population speaks Finnish and only 5 percent of the population speaks Swedish as their mother tongue.

    In the coastal parts of Finland, which are mainly the bilingual parts of the country, both languages can still be seen in the street view. Probably the most visible element is the street signs that are written in both languages. In cities where Swedish is the majority language, the street name is first stated in Swedish, followed by the street name in Finnish. And another way round in cities where Finnish is the majority language.

    I recently saw a video from BBC about this arrangement in the bilingual cities of Finland (https://twitter.com/BBCWorld/status/1559135780894916608). Fun fact: If the population distribution changes so that, for example, the Swedish minority population becomes the majority population, the city needs to change every street sign to indicate this fact. And according to the video the Finns “don’t consider it as a problem, but a richness of our culture”.

    • Thanks, Milla! Love the fun fact – but has that ever actually happened?
      During a conference on minority languages in Finland a few years ago I learned that this bilingualism is not a problem for the Finns, as you say, but for those immigrants who end up in the Swedish-speaking parts and need to learn two languages …

    • Kat says:

      Thank you, Milla! It is fascinating to learn that Finland is a bilingual nation. I wonder if Swedish is compulsory in Finnish schools to preserve this bilingualism. Besides, I believe that linguistic landscapes, such as signs, are a strong indicator of an area’s predominant population in multicultural nations. Similarly to Australia, even though the street names are still in English, the store signs or the style of the architecture can reflect the characteristics of the residents. For example, in Koreantown, shop signs, menus, and signage are predominantly written in Korean. The exterior design of the eateries also gives me the impression that I am in Korea and not Australia.

  • Sharkie says:

    It is well known that Macau was the colony of Portugal. By judging and pronouncing the word ‘Macau’, it is obvious that the name was influenced by Portuguese language. Before the Portuguese colonisation, the first ever written record of the place was originally called ‘阿媽港’ (A Ma Gang) in Chinese. Back then, local citizens believed that a goddess called ‘媽祖’ (Mazu) protected the areas that they lived in and built a temple for worshipping Mazu. Later until the Portuguese colonisation, colonisers asked the name of the place while citizens thought they were referring to the temple itself, the citizens responded the name of the temple ‘Ma Kok’ (媽閣). As a result, the Portuguese came up with several names; with ‘Macau’ being the final version.

    Up until today, since the transfer of sovereignty of Macau from Portugal to China in December 20th 1999, the name ‘Macau’ remains the same in English language or other European languages instead of using its actual Chinese name 澳門 (Ao men).

    • Thank you, Sharkie, for this fascinating account! Is there a movement asking for the international name to be changed to Ao Men? (like ‘Bombay’ to ‘Mumbai’ or ‘Turkey’ to ‘Türkiye’?)

      • Sharkie says:

        Hi Ingrid,

        The answer for this question really lies in the future. Currently, Macau is under “One country, Two systems” like Hong Kong, this implies that Macau also has its own government, legal and financial affairs. This policy will remain unchanged for 50 years, and this marks the legal expiration in 2049. Until China maintains full governance, it is therefore hard to tell either they decide to keep its name or switching it to ‘Ao Men’.

    • Dung says:

      Hi Sharkie! Thank you for sharing! I am very surprised about the origin of the name ‘Macau’. Thanks to your comment, I think now I can explain it clearly to my niece. She used to ask me this question but I could not give her an exact answer at that time. Your comment reminds me of the origin of the name of my hometown – Di Linh. Di Linh is a district of Lam Dong province in the central highlands of Vietnam. It was originally the living area of Koho which is an ethnic group in Vietnam. The original name of my hometown is Djiring. In Koho, Djiring means happiness. According to the written document of Koho people, Djiring was named by the first village head. He believed that the Goddess of Happiness would bring prosperity and joy to his villagers. Because of the cool weather, Kinh people, who account for just over 85.32% of the population of Vietnam in the 2019 census, have moved to this region to settle down since 1975. In 1990, the local government decided to change the name ‘Djiring’ to ‘Di Linh’ based on the standard national language in Vietnam. However, the pronunciation is still the same as in Koho. If you have a chance of visiting Di Linh, the first thing you may hear from the local people is: “I am proud of being born in a region of happiness.”

  • Damein Bell says:

    Hi Ingrid and ngata from Gunditjmara country in southwest Victoria. I was searching the relationship between ‘ descended’ and ‘belonging’ and came across your piece. Thanks for your effort and effect. wuuwook, Damein Bell

  • Gegentuul B says:

    Thoroughly enjoyed reading it!
    And thanks for introducing that book at the end!

  • Tazin Abdullah says:

    Thank you for this, Ingrid! This is a very interesting read and particularly pertinent to our lives here in Australia. I find it can be quite a challenge to regularly engage our children with Australia’s indigenous history. Part of the reason for this is that we mostly have access to, as you point out, are superficial names like “Ku-ring-gai” and the token performance here and there. What is around us does not adequately address either history or present reality of the place we call home.
    Going off slightly in another direction but still related to this, is the ever-present demand upon immigrants to Australia to be “grateful” for being given space in this country. This gratitude, however, is not demanded for the original owners of this land but the expectation is that thankfulness must be directed to those who “possess” this land. These symbols that you have noted very much point to that possessiveness.

  • Jo Medlin says:

    An important commentary on the power of environmental print and the language of power – or power of language. Thank you for this very informative and thought-provoking piece.

  • Paul Joseph Desailly says:

    Maybe it’s because I’m one of those dumb school boy graffitists, in my case at at Saint Kevin’s College (Toorak) in the 1960s that atonement ever pricks me! Melbourne’s Yarra river ain’t quite Sydney’s caffe latte line but my folks sure had more money than I could jump over. * Turning coarse language into Pig Latin while our Latin teachers pontificated us with amo, amas, amat, amamus, amatis, amant was my favourite. They sure knew how to ‘et tu brute’ us to death but for some reason best known to academics they couldn’t quite get their super clever heads around the much easier lingo, Pig Latin, q.v. wicked Wiki: ‘igpay atinlay’.

    * ‘If you want peace prepare for war’ was our puerile battle hymn as we sallied forth to engage Scotch College vandal-Protestants a hop skip and a jump away across Gardiners Creek. Latin: Si vis pacem, para bellum

    Pardon me banging on Ingrid. It’s not all my fault given what Putin is doing once again when he perceives a threat to Russia and its mother tongue. Your readers might not realize that Europeans refer to the auxlang of world peace, Esperanto, as ‘the Latin of the people’. What a coincidence! Only yesterday for the Ides of March (Idus Martii) I asked my webmaster to put up ‘And WHEN THE WAR IS OVER in Ukraine’, i.e. an article on WW3 and the language problem at the heart of the conflict Ukraine in which Latin has a role:

    Homo homini lupus. Man is a wolf to his fellow man. Homo estas lupo por sia proksimulo.

    Bellum omnium contra omnes. A war of all against all. Milito de ĉiuj kontraŭ ĉiuj.

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