In Bahrain, I was beaten. For example, they asked for tea. I gave tea leaves. I did not make the tea. She put her hand on my neck and moved me to tell, ‘Boil the tea leaves. Make tea’. They told me things in Arabic, I did not know Arabic. There was no other Bangladeshi to help me out. That’s how I worked. Sometimes, the children said me something, but I didn’t understand. Then the children knocked me. But you can never have a gloomy face. (Afia, pseudonym, a Bangladeshi migrant domestic worker)
Pakhi Begum left Bangladesh for Dubai to work as a maid … (Source: Say NO – UNiTE)
This quote is taken from an interview with a female Bangladeshi migrant worker who was a participant in a research project we undertook which aimed to explore perceptions of the value of English for migrant workers from Bangladesh to the Middle East. The quote aptly illustrates Afia’s vulnerability as a domestic worker. Partly her vulnerability is a result of limited Arabic and English language proficiency and miscommunication.
This raises the question what the role of language skills in migrant exploitation is. Could Afia have avoided being beaten if she knew more Arabic or English? Or, to put it more generally, to what extent do communication barriers contribute to the exploitation of migrant domestic workers such as Afia?
We explore such questions in an article recently published in Multilingua, where we suggest that structural entanglements and global inequalities put into question commonplace assumptions linking language skills to economic success for Bangladeshi migrant workers.
Recent reports on the devastating experiences of Bangladeshi female migrant workers in the Middle East (which have gone largely unreported in English-language media) throw into sharp relief the deep structural issues – far beyond the linguistic – affecting the lives of female Bangladeshi migrant workers to the Middle East.
Since 1991 Bangladesh has sent more than 700,000 women abroad to work, primarily as domestic workers to the Middle East (BBC 2018). Many of these have returned reporting that they have faced exploitation and abuse in the workplace. The complaints that have been made – which echo accounts documented in our research – include receiving no salary (or a lower salary than promised), unbearable workloads, physical and verbal abuse, and sexual assault.
Reports in the Bangladeshi media relay the tribulations of Fatema, for example, who went to Lebanon to improve her family’s condition, but came back after only three months physically disabled, with a significantly worsened economic and social status (BBC 2018; Prothom Alo 2018). Her employer under-fed and tortured her, and when she, not able to bear it anymore, informed her employer that she wanted to go back to Bangladesh, the employer pushed her out of a third-floor window. Like Fatema, many of the women returning from the Middle East have physical injuries and/or psychological trauma. Additionally, they also face significant social stigma, including the refusal of their families to accept them back.
Despite these reports, there have been few attempts from Middle Eastern countries to take actions against the employers who were reportedly involved with such crimes. A country with less clout than other migrant-sending countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines or Sri Lanka, attempts by Bangladesh to lobby for work environments where Bangladeshi female migrant workers can work in safety and dignity have had little effect (BBC 2018).
The restricted bargaining power of Bangladesh has been increasingly observable since 2000, when an Indonesian domestic worker who had been tortured by her employer was executed for stabbing and killing her employer in Saudi Arabia. Protests from Indonesia and human rights groups ensued, and stories of the torture and exploitation of female domestic workers in Saudi Arabia attracted global attention. As a result, Nepal, the Philippines and Sri Lanka joined Indonesia to create pressure on Saudi Arabia to improve its treatment of female domestic workers by creating travel bans to stop sending women from their countries. Facing an acute shortage of female domestic workers, Saudi Arabia proposed that Bangladesh step in to fill the gap. Although there had previously been a ban on female migration as a measure of protection, Bangladesh eventually caved in when Saudi Arabia made the continued hiring of Bangladeshi male workers contingent on the availability of a female workforce, too (Prothom Alo 2018). Saudi Arabia further insisted that, even though female domestic workers from other countries are paid 1,500 riyals per month, the pay of Bangladeshi workers would be capped at 800 riyals (Prothom Alo 2018).
Today, Bangladeshi media regularly feature harrowing stories of exploitation faced by Bangladeshi female domestic workers in Saudi Arabia. Despite these gloomy reports we do, of course, not wish to suggest that all migrant workers face abuse and exploitation. In fact, some participants in our research were able to improve their family’s economic and social status considerably by working abroad.
All of them shared stories of hardship, and limited Arabic and English language skills were a significant aspect of the challenges they faced. This raises the question whether pre-departure language skills training would improve the lot of Bangladeshi migrant workers.
There can be no doubt that English and Arabic language skills might help migrant workers to better navigate life in the Middle East. However, we should be wary of suggesting that language learning alone is sufficient to overcome the difficulties in which many migrant workers find themselves. The stories of suffering and exploitation from returnee female domestic workers are clear indicators that structural global inequalities must be considered when exploring the extent to which migration and language skills can be economically, personally and socially transformative to individuals like Afia and to countries like Bangladesh.
References
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) (2018). ফেরার পর পরিবারেও ঠাঁই নেই: সৌদি থেকে নির্যাতনের শিকার হয়ে ফিরে আসা বাংলাদেশী নারী [Translation: No place in the family upon return: Bangladeshi women returning from Saudi being victim of torture] (4 June 2018).
Erling, Elizabeth J., Chowdhury, Qumrul Hasan, Solly, Mike and Seargeant, Philip (2018). “Successful” migration, (English) language skills and global inequality: The case of Bangladeshi migrants to the Middle East. Multilingua. doi:https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2018-0021.
Erling, Elizabeth J., Seargeant, Philip, Solly, Mike, Chowdhury, Qumrul H. and Rahman, Sayeedur (2015) English for economic development: A case study of migrant workers from Bangladesh. ELTRP Report, British Council.
Prothom Alo (2018). প্রবাসী নারী শ্রমিকের গল্পটা কেউ শুনবেন? [Translation: Will you listen to the story of the woman migrant worker?] (4 June 2018).
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Thank you for posting such an interesting article. Without a question, knowing English and Arabic could make it easier for migrant workers to get by in the Middle East. We should be careful, though, not to imply that learning a language by itself is enough to get through the challenges that many migrant workers face. When examining the extent to which migration and language skills can be economically, personally, and socially transformative for everyone. I hope to read more blogs about this from you, Asst. Prof. Qumrul and Prof. Elizabeth.
Thank you for this discerning post Asst. Prof. Qumrul and Prof. Elizabeth. Indeed, migrants are susceptible to abuse and exploitation due to cultural differences and the probable partiality of one’s race against others. Language incompetency and communicative hindrances impedes understanding amidst diversity, and this is why language barrier could be considered a major factor that contributes to migrant exploitation. Relatively, insinuated is the power and significant functionality of language, most especially of English in the global context. In consideration, English proficiency and ability to utilize a respective country’s common language, should be a specification for migrants prior to being granted with an authorization to work abroad. With this, it would be ensured that each migrant would be capable of effective communication and would be able to let themselves be understood.
Thank you for your insights, Asst. Prof. Qumrul and Prof. Elizabeth! This article showcases just how powerful language is. Language isn’t just a tool for communicating with others, as being well-versed in a language and being able to communicate properly will allow for more opportunities, thus eliminating prejudice and cultural differences. There might be other factors to help alleviate the experiences of people like Afia, but I consider language and improving on it as a very strong solution.
Such an insightful post, Asst. Prof. Qumrul and Prof. Elizabeth. Indeed, this situation is still prevalent, especially among Filipino migrant social workers. Like what Kaela has stated, I also believe cultural indifference and prejudice, which stem from linguistic and communication barriers, are the leading cause of such exploitations. To solve such phenomena, I would like to concur with the idea of having migrant workers sent to pre-departure language training. Apart from being able to learn the actual language, the aforementioned training may perhaps allow migrant workers to grasp some of their employer’s culture. In this way, they could further prevent or completely avoid being put into such a situation.
Interesting read, Asst. Prof. Qumrul and Prof. Elizabeth. Cultural differences and prejudice, which also stem from linguistic or communication barriers, have always been a challenge encountered by ESL and EFL speakers working abroad. This is indeed one thing that is inevitable to happen hence, I believe that language has become the solution to all these dilemmas. I then concur with Asst. Prof. Qumrul and Prof. Elizabeth’s views that it is necessary for workers to attend pre-departure language skills trainings to improve their communication skills, eventually mitigating the possible [negative] consequences that could occur to them.
Thank you for sharing your interesting insights regarding this research. As a Philippine citizen myself, this has enlightened me about the exploitations or potential dangers of migrant workers in Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, or any country for that matter. I also understand that the language barrier might be involved with the exploitation of the migrant workers, thus enhancing the migrant workers’ English and Arabic language skills can improve their situation. Weakening the language barrier can help the migrant communicate with their employer and negotiate, hence they can take control. However, we must also consider that this might not be enough to ensure the safety of the migrant workers and more people need to be aware. Thus, research such as this one is quite essential for migrant workers.
Coming from the Philippines, one of the migrant-sending countries mentioned, this blog is very eye-opening to me. I’ve heard and seen many stories of exploited migrant workers – some from our mainstream media, while some from stories of people that I am acquainted with. While the exploitation of these migrant workers is discussed, the language barrier as a contributing factor is not explicitly recognized. This post reminds me that as language researchers, one of our shared responsibilities is to shed light on such issues by using our resources in making these migrant workers heard.
Thank you both for this fascinating insight into a very meaningful research which as you point out has been largely neglected in the English-language media. The story you start with seems to suggest that linguistic difference can be part of the systematic disadvantage and lack of power that these Bangladeshi women domestic workers have in places like Saudi Arabia. It shows that linguistic repertoires have different value across different spaces and this can have serious and long-lasting consequences for social power and access to justice. I am looking forward to reading your article in Multilingua on your research and wish you all the very best with it.